From Stroke to Dementia: a Comprehensive Review Exposing Tight Interactions Between Stroke and Amyloid-β Formation

Stroke and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are cerebral pathologies with high socioeconomic impact that can occur together and mutually interact. Vascular factors predisposing to cerebrovascular disease have also been specifically associated with development of AD, and acute stroke is known to increase the risk to develop dementia. Despite the apparent association, it remains unknown how acute cerebrovascular disease and development of AD are precisely linked and act on each other. It has been suggested that this interaction is strongly related to vascular deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ), i.e., cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Furthermore, the blood–brain barrier (BBB), perivascular space, and the glymphatic system, the latter proposedly responsible for the drainage of solutes from the brain parenchyma, may represent key pathophysiological pathways linking stroke, Aβ deposition, and dementia. In this review, we propose a hypothetic connection between CAA, stroke, perivascular space integrity, and dementia. Based on relevant pre-clinical research and a few clinical case reports, we speculate that impaired perivascular space integrity, inflammation, hypoxia, and BBB breakdown after stroke can lead to accelerated deposition of Aβ within brain parenchyma and cerebral vessel walls or exacerbation of CAA. The deposition of Aβ in the parenchyma would then be the initiating event leading to synaptic dysfunction, inducing cognitive decline and dementia. Maintaining the clearance of Aβ after stroke could offer a new therapeutic approach to prevent post-stroke cognitive impairment and development into dementia

Motor recovery and cortical reorganization after constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke patients: a preliminary study.

Constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) is a physical rehabilitation regime that has been previously shown to improve motor function in chronic hemiparetic stroke patients. However, the neural mechanisms supporting rehabilitation-induced motor recovery are poorly understood. The goal of this study was to assess motor cortical reorganization after CIMT using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In a repeated-measures design, 4 incompletely recovered chronic stroke patients treated with CIMT underwent motor function testing and fMRI. Five age-matched normal subjects were also imaged. A laterality index (LI) was determined from the fMRI data, reflecting the distribution of activation in motor cortices contralateral compared with ipsilateral to the moving hand. Pre-intervention fMRI showed a lower LI during affected hand movement of stroke patients (LI = 0.23+/-0.07) compared to controls (LI unaffected patient hand = 0.65+/-0.10; LI dominant normal hand = 0.65+/-0.11; LI nondominant normal hand = 0.69+/-0.11; P < 0.05) due to trends toward increased ipsilateral motor cortical activation. Motor function testing showed that patients made significant gains in functional use of the stroke-affected upper extremity (detected by the Motor Activity Log) and significant reductions in motor impairment (detected by the Fugl-Meyer Stroke Scale and the Wolf Motor Function Test) immediately after CIMT, and these effects persisted at 6-month follow-up. The behavioral effects of CIMT were associated with a trend toward a reduced LI from pre-intervention to immediately post-intervention (LI = -0.01+/-0.06, P = 0.077) and 6 months post-intervention (LI = -0.03+/-0.15). Stroke-affected hand movement was not accompanied by mirror movements during fMRI, and electromyographic measures of mirror recruitment under simulated fMRI conditions were not correlated with LI values. These data provide preliminary evidence that gains in motor function produced by CIMT in chronic stroke patients may be associated with a shift in laterality of motor cortical activation toward the undamaged hemisphere

Design and Evaluation of a Rodent-Specific Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Coil: An In Silico and In Vivo Validation Study

Background: Rodent models are fundamental in unraveling cellular and molecular mechanisms of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced effects on the brain. However, proper translation of human TMS protocols to animal models have been restricted by the lack of rodent-specific focal TMS coils. Objective: We aimed to improve TMS focalization in rodent brain with a novel small, cooled, and rodent-specific TMS coil. Methods: A rodent-specific 25-mm figure-of-eight TMS coil was developed. Stimulation focalization was simulated in silico for the rodent coil and a commercial human 50-mm figure-of-eight TMS coil. Both coils were also compared in vivo by electromyography measurements of brachialis motor evoked potential (MEP) responses to TMS at different brain sites in anesthetized rats (n = 6). Focalization was determined from the coils' level of stimulation laterality. Differences in MEPs were statistically analyzed with repeated-measures, within-subjects, ANOVA. Results: In silico simulation results deemed the human coil insufficient for unilateral stimulation of the rat motor cortex, whereas lateralized electrical field induction was projected attainable with the rodent coil. Cortical, in vivo MEP amplitude measurements from multiple points in each hemisphere, revealed unilateral activation of the contralateral brachialis muscle, in absence of ipsilateral brachialis activation, with both coils. Conclusion: Computer simulations motivated the design of a smaller rodent-specific TMS coil, but came short in explaining the capability of a larger commercial human coil to induce unilateral MEPs in vivo. Lateralized TMS, as demonstrated for both TMS coils, corroborates their use in translational rodent studies, to elucidate mechanisms of action of therapeutic TMS protocols

Interferon-β attenuates lung inflammation following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage

INTRODUCTION: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) affects relatively young people and carries a poor prognosis with a case fatality rate of 35%. One of the major systemic complications associated with SAH is acute lung injury (ALI) which occurs in up to one-third of the patients and is associated with poor outcome. ALI in SAH may be predisposed by neurogenic pulmonary edema (NPE) and inflammatory mediators. The objective of this study was to assess the immunomodulatory effects of interferon-β (IFN-β) on inflammatory mediators in the lung after experimental SAH. METHODS: Male Wistar rats were subjected to the induction of SAH by means of the endovascular filament method. Sham-animals underwent sham-surgery. Rats received IFN-β for four consecutive days starting at two hours after SAH induction. After seven days, lungs were analyzed for the expression of inflammatory markers. RESULTS: SAH induced the influx of neutrophils into the lung, and enhanced expression of the pulmonary adhesion molecules E-selectin, inter-cellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 compared to sham-animals. In addition, SAH increased the expression of the chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-2, and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC)-1 in the lung. Finally, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was significantly increased in lungs from SAH-animals compared to sham-animals. IFN-β effectively abolished the SAH-induced expression of all pro-inflammatory mediators in the lung. CONCLUSIONS: IFN-β strongly reduces lung inflammation after experimental SAH and may therefore be an effective drug to prevent SAH-mediated lung injury

The effect of adipose tissue-derived stem cells in a middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke model depends on their engraftment rate

Background: In the field of experimental stem cell therapy, intra-arterial (IA) delivery yields the best results concerning, for example, migrated cell number at the targeted site. However, IA application also appears to be associated with increased mortality rates and infarction. Since many rodent studies systemically apply 1 × 106 cells, this could also be a consequence of engrafted cell number. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effect of different doses of adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs) on engraftment rates and stroke outcome measured in vivo using 9.4-T high-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods: Male Wistar rats (n = 43) underwent a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) for 45 or 90 min, followed by IA delivery of either saline or 1 × 106, 3 × 105, or 5 × 104 ASCs pre-labelled with very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs). MRI (9.4-T) analysis was performed 48 h and 9 days post-MCAo. Lesion volumes were assessed by analysis of T2-weighted images and cell signal tracking showing cell engraftment and active cell migration by an improved T2*-analysis. Results: The ASC-derived signal intensity increased in the affected hemisphere 48 h post MCAo with injected cell number (p < 0.05). The analysis of stroke volumes revealed an increased infarction after injection of 1 × 106 ASCs compared to controls or application of 5 × 104 ASCs (p < 0.05). At 9 days post-MCAo, injection of 3 × 105 ASCs resulted in reduced infarct volumes (p < 0.05). Correspondingly, MRI analysis revealed no changes in cell numbers between both MRI examinations but showed active ASC migration to the site of infarction. Conclusion: Our results confirm that IA injection is an efficient way of targeting damaged brain tissue but its usefulness strongly depends on the right dose of delivered stem cells since this factor has a strong influence on migration rate and infarct volume, with better results for doses below 1 × 106 cells. Future challenges will include the determination of therapeutic doses for best cellular engraftment and stroke outcome

Does upper limb strength play a prominent role in health-related quality of life in stroke patients discharged from inpatient rehabilitation?

Background: Impairments in arm function are a common problem in stroke survivors and have a large impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Little is known about the longitudinal relationship between recovery of upper limb strength and changes in HRQoL. Objectives: This study aimed to determine to what extent changes in HRQoL are related to changes in upper limb strength after discharge from inpatient rehabilitation. Methods: 250 patients from an RCT were assessed at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation (baseline) and at 12 weeks post-discharge (follow-up). The Stroke Impact Scale was used to measure HRQoL, and the Motricity Index Arm was used to measure upper limb strength. Hierarchical regression analysis was performed to determine the predictive value of upper limb strength on HRQoL, relative to demographic and clinical characteristics. Regression analysis was used to determine the relation between upper limb strength improvement and HRQoL improvement. Results: Upper limb strength at baseline was a major predictor of HRQoL at follow-up, after accounting for demographic and clinical characteristics ( p < .05). Improvement in HRQoL was positively related to improvement in upper limb strength ( F(1, 240) = 18.351, p <.0005). Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of upper limb strength in HRQoL, as HRQoL is associated with improvement in upper limb strength recovery. Better monitoring of recovery and treatment of upper limb strength during the outpatient rehabilitation period and beyond, i.e. outside the typical time-window of recovery in the first 3 months post-stroke, might contribute to higher quality of life for stroke survivors

Propofol anesthesia improves stroke outcomes over isoflurane anesthesia—a longitudinal multiparametric MRI study in a rodent model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion

General anesthesia is routinely used in endovascular thrombectomy procedures, for which volatile gas and/or intravenous propofol are recommended. Emerging evidence suggests propofol may have superior effects on disability and/or mortality rates, but a mode-of-action underlying these class-specific effects remains unknown. Here, a moderate isoflurane or propofol dosage on experimental stroke outcomes was retrospectively compared using serial multiparametric MRI and behavioral testing. Adult male rats (N = 26) were subjected to 90-min filament-induced transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Diffusion-, T2- and perfusion-weighted MRI was performed during occlusion, 0.5 h after recanalization, and four days into the subacute phase. Sequels of ischemic damage—blood–brain barrier integrity, cerebrovascular reactivity and sensorimotor functioning—were assessed after four days. While size and severity of ischemia was comparable between groups during occlusion, isoflurane anesthesia was associated with larger lesion sizes and worsened sensorimotor functioning at follow-up. MRI markers indicated that cytotoxic edema persisted locally in the isoflurane group early after recanalization, coinciding with burgeoning vasogenic edema. At follow-up, sequels of ischemia were further aggravated in the post-ischemic lesion, manifesting as increased blood–brain barrier leakage, cerebrovascular paralysis and cerebral hyperperfusion. These findings shed new light on how isoflurane, and possibly similar volatile agents, associate with persisting injurious processes after recanalization that contribute to suboptimal treatment outcome.</p

Exploring the experiences of stroke patients treated with transcranial magnetic stimulation for upper limb recovery: A qualitative study

Background: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) treatments have shown promise in improving arm recovery in stroke patients. Currently, little is known about patients' experiences with repetitive TMS treatment, and this lack of knowledge may affect optimal implementation in clinical practice. The aim of this explorative study was to gain insight in the perceived effects and experiences of the design and delivery of a rTMS treatment for upper limb recovery from the perspectives of stroke patients. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted as part of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in a specialized rehabilitation center. Data were collected through face-To-face semi-structured interviews with 13 stroke patients who completed a 10-day rTMS intervention for upper limb recovery. The interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: The major themes that emerged from the patients' feedback were the following: positive experiences of the treatment (experienced physical effects, comfort, therapeutic relationship, receiving information, learning about the brain, no burden of added rTMS treatment session, no unpleasant aspects), concerns (effects of stimulation of the brain, equipment, logistics), general experience of recovery, experienced psychological effects (grateful, sense of purpose, recovery as extra motivation to exercise, disappointment and hope of group allocation), and motivation to participate (personal benefit and cognitions, altruism). Important components related to the positive experience of the design and delivery of the treatment included comfort (i.e. moment of relaxation) and the sensation of a painless treatment without side-effects. Key concerns included uncertainty and anxiety about possible negative consequences and group allocation. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that rTMS is well accepted by stroke patients with an upper limb paresis. Besides the expectation of a therapeutic benefit, the patients reported various psychological effects. Positive experiences, such as the provision of a short moment of relaxation each day, could have practical implications for clinical stroke rehabilitation settings aimed at improving patient satisfaction. Explanation about and feedback from routine motor recovery progression monitoring at fixed times post-stroke is also valued by patients. Negative emotions may be limited or avoided by transparent and recurrent information delivery in future trials

Propofol anesthesia improves stroke outcomes over isoflurane anesthesia—a longitudinal multiparametric MRI study in a rodent model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion

General anesthesia is routinely used in endovascular thrombectomy procedures, for which volatile gas and/or intravenous propofol are recommended. Emerging evidence suggests propofol may have superior effects on disability and/or mortality rates, but a mode-of-action underlying these class-specific effects remains unknown. Here, a moderate isoflurane or propofol dosage on experimental stroke outcomes was retrospectively compared using serial multiparametric MRI and behavioral testing. Adult male rats (N = 26) were subjected to 90-min filament-induced transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Diffusion-, T2- and perfusion-weighted MRI was performed during occlusion, 0.5 h after recanalization, and four days into the subacute phase. Sequels of ischemic damage—blood–brain barrier integrity, cerebrovascular reactivity and sensorimotor functioning—were assessed after four days. While size and severity of ischemia was comparable between groups during occlusion, isoflurane anesthesia was associated with larger lesion sizes and worsened sensorimotor functioning at follow-up. MRI markers indicated that cytotoxic edema persisted locally in the isoflurane group early after recanalization, coinciding with burgeoning vasogenic edema. At follow-up, sequels of ischemia were further aggravated in the post-ischemic lesion, manifesting as increased blood–brain barrier leakage, cerebrovascular paralysis and cerebral hyperperfusion. These findings shed new light on how isoflurane, and possibly similar volatile agents, associate with persisting injurious processes after recanalization that contribute to suboptimal treatment outcome.</p

Glutamatergic medication in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND: Compulsivity is a cross-disorder trait underlying phenotypically distinct psychiatric disorders that emerge in childhood or adolescence. Despite the effectiveness of serotonergic compounds in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, treatment-resistant symptoms remaining in 40 to 60 % of patients present a pressing clinical problem. There are currently no medications that effectively treat the core impairments of autism spectrum disorder. There is an urgent need for the development of conceptually novel pharmacological strategies. Agents targeting glutamate neurotransmission, such as memantine, represent promising candidates. This proof-of-concept clinical study will allow pilot-testing of memantine for both clinical effectiveness and tolerability/safety. Memantine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, approved for the treatment of Alzheimer's dementia in a number of countries. METHODS/DESIGN: This 12-week study has an add-on, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled design of treatment with memantine, including an up-titration phase (forced flexible dose design, 5-15 mg/day), in patients aged 6-17 years and 9 months with obsessive-compulsive disorder or autism spectrum disorder. It is planned to include patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (N = 50) or autism spectrum disorder (N = 50) across four centres in three European countries. Patients will be randomly assigned to memantine or placebo in a 1:1 ratio. Primary objectives are the investigation of the effectiveness of memantine in paediatric patients for improving symptoms of compulsivity (primary outcome measure: total score on the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale) and to explore its tolerability and safety. Secondary objectives are to explore the effects of memantine at the level of structure, function and biochemistry of the fronto-striatal circuits, and to collect blood for genetic analyses and biomarkers. Tertiary objectives are to explore the role of new candidate genes and pathways for compulsivity by linking genes to clinical phenotypes, response to treatment, neurocognitive test performance, and key structural and functional neuroimaging measures of the fronto-striatal circuits and to explore biomarkers/proteomics for compulsivity traits. DISCUSSION: This study is part of the large, translational project TACTICS ( http://www.tactics-project.eu/ ) that is funded by the European Union and investigates the neural, genetic and molecular factors involved in the pathogenesis of compulsivity. Its results will provide clinically relevant solid information on potential new mechanisms and medication treatment in obsessive-compulsive and autism spectrum disorders. TRIAL REGISTRATION: EudraCT Number: 2014-003080-38 , date of registration: 14 July 2014