ORIGINE, DIVERSITE ET PHYLOGEOGRAPHIE DE LA FLORE GUINEO-CONGOLAISE DU DAHOMEY GAP: ORIGIN, DIVERSITY AND PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE GUINEO-CONGOLIAN FLORA OF THE DAHOMEY GAP

La présente thèse s’intéresse à l’histoire de la forêt tropicale Africaine de la région Guinéo-Congolaise (GC), plus particulièrement à l’histoire de sa fragmentation au niveau de la trouée du Dahomey ou Dahomey Gap (DG). Le DG est un corridor de savanes situé au niveau du sud Bénin et Togo et qui sépare la forêt GC en deux blocs :le bloc d’Afrique de l’ouest (WA) ou Haut Guinéen (UG) et le bloc d’Afrique centrale (CA), phytogéographiquement constitué du Bas Guinéen (LG) à l’ouest et du Congolais (C) à l’est. En effet, Les études de reconstitution des paléo-végétations dans le DG ont révélé que la forêt GC formait un seul bloc durant certaines phases interglaciaires et aurait subi une fragmentation durant les phases glaciaires. De plus, les études botaniques et phytogéographiques de la végétation actuelle du Bénin et du Togo (DG) ont révélé la présence d’îlots de forêts denses semi-décidues, de galeries forestières et de forêts riveraines qui contiennent des espèces typiques des forêts denses humides GC. Ces données pointent le rôle de barrière intermittente joué par le DG, mais on connaît mal l’origine de ces espèces GC du Dahomey Gap ni les conséquences évolutives des changements démographiques passés sur la diversité génétique de leurs populations. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est donc de déterminer avec une approche pluridisciplinaire l’origine des populations d’espèces GC du Dahomey Gap en vue de mieux comprendre l’histoire de la fragmentation de la forêt GC au niveau du DG et l’impact des changements climatiques passés sur la diversité intraspécifique. Pour atteindre cet objectif, au niveau interspécifique, (1) les patrons de diversité et de distribution géographique des espèces GC du DG ont été analysés afin de déterminer l’affinité ou origine WA et/ou CA de ces espèces. Ensuite, au niveau intraspécifique des données de microsatellites nucléaires et de génome chloroplastique entier ont été acquises afin de réaliser des analyses de diversité génétique, de phylogéographie et de l’histoire démographique des populations chez trois espèces d’arbres GC présentes dans le DG :Anthonotha macrophylla, Distemonanthus benthamianus et Terminalia superba. Pour chaque espèce nous avons tenté de déterminer (2) si les populations du DG de ces espèces se distinguent génétiquement des populations forestières, (3) si il y a des signatures génétiques de changements démographiques au sein des populations (changement de taille, fragmentation, fusion), (4) quelle est l’origine et la période d’installation des populations actuelles du DG et (5) quelles sont les capacités de dispersion des gènes et leur potentiel de colonisation. L’étude des patrons de diversité et de distribution géographique de la flore GC du DG montre que cette flore est partagée à 67 % par les deux blocs forestiers, mais qu’une plus grande proportion de ces espèces a une origine ou affinité CA (19,7%) que WA (13,3%). Elle montre aussi un patron est-ouest attendu (proportion d’espèces WA croissante vers l’ouest du DG), mais aussi nord-sud au niveau du Bénin (plus d’espèces WA vers le nord) suggérant le rôle potentiel de la chaîne de l’Atacora dans la colonisation du nord du DG par des espèces du UG.Au niveau génétique, les données de microsatellites nucléaires et de plastome montrent une forte structure génétique et une discontinuité génétique au sein des trois espèces séparant la population du DG avec celles des zones forestières indiquant une barrière passée au flux de gènes (1 pool génétique dans le DG, 1 pool génétique dans le WA et 3 pools génétiques dans le CA ou LG ;avec les données microsatellites nucléaires). Les inférences démographiques sur base des mêmes données microsatellites soutiennent le scénario d’origine par mélange de la population du DG pour les espèces D. benthamianus et T. superba tandis que pour A. macrophylla, c’est plutôt une origine CA. Les données de plastome quant à elles, soutiennent que la population du DG provient de la lignée LG (notamment depuis la ligne volcanique du Cameroun) des deux espèces D. benthamianus et A. macrophylla. Ce résultat concorde avec celui obtenu avec les données microsatellites de A. macrophylla mais pas pour D. benthamianus, laissant ainsi penser que l’origine de mélange obtenu pour cette espèce pourrait être due à un flux de gènes intense depuis le UG. Les datations à partir des données microsatellites nucléaires montrent que l’installation des populations des espèces T. superba et A. macrophylla date d’avant le Dernier maximum glaciaire (DMG), suggérant que certaines espèces GC du DG auraient survécu au DMG. Pour D. benthamianus, la population du DG proviendrait plutôt d’une colonisation post glaciaire notamment lors de l’Holocène humide. Cette étude montre aussi que les populations du DG des différentes espèces présentent une faible diversité génétique comparativement aux zones forestières. Cette faible diversité génétique est congruente avec le déclin de la taille efficace suivi d’une dérive génétique pour A. macrophylla et T. superba, et avec l’effet de fondation ou un goulot d’étranglement suivi d’une dérive génétique pour D. benthamianus; obtenus à partir des analyses démographiques.En conclusion, cette étude doctorale révèle donc la particularité génétique de la population du DG des trois modèles étudiés et supportent une origine LG (probablement depuis la ligne volcanique du Cameroun) de la population du DG de ces espèces avec un flux de gènes intense depuis le UG. Elle pointe aussi que la réponse des espèces GC du DG aux changements climatiques passées pourrait n’avoir pas été synchrone, probablement en raison de l’écologie de chacune des espèces. Les fragments forestiers du DG devraient faire l’objet d’attention particulière de conservation car, il n’est pas exclu que malgré leur faible diversité, les populations du DG aient subit une sélection génétique et qu’elles soient plus adaptées aux conditions climatiques sèches du DG, dans quel cas elles représentent une ressource phytogénétique potentiellement importante.Doctorat en Sciencesinfo:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublishe

Development, Characterization, and Cross-Amplification of Microsatellite Markers in the Understudied African Genus Anthonotha (Fabaceae)

Premise of the study: Anthonotha macrophylla (Fabaceae) is a common tree species throughout the Guineo-Congolian forest that is sometimes confounded with other congeneric species; it is expected to be an interesting phylogeographical model to infer the history of the African dense forests. We developed 18 microsatellite markers from this species and tested their transferability in 15 congeneric species. Methods and Results: A genomic library was obtained using the Illumina platform, and 18 polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed. The polymorphic microsatellites displayed two to 24 alleles (average: 11.9 alleles per locus, expected heterozygosity range: 0.18-0.91, mean: 0.64) in three populations of A. macrophylla from Benin, Liberia, and Cameroon. Cross-amplification in one to nine individuals of 15 congeneric Anthonotha species (A. acuminata, A. brieyi, A. cladantha, A. crassifolia, A. ferruginea, A. fragrans, A. gilletii, A. lamprophylla, A. mouandzae, A. noldeae, A. pellegrinii, A. pynaertii, A. stipulacea, A. wijmacampensis, and A. xanderi) showed successful amplification in six to 17 loci, making most of these markers useful at the generic level. Conclusions: This set of markers will be useful to study species delimitation and the genetic structure of Anthonotha species, and thus to better understand the history of tropical African rainforests.SCOPUS: ar.jinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Origin and history of the Dahomey Gap separating West and Central African rain forests: insights from the phylogeography of the legume tree Distemonanthus benthamianus

AimThe aim of this study was to understand the origin of the forest flora currently found in the Dahomey Gap (DG), a 200-km-wide forest-savanna mosaic separating the West African and Central African rain forest blocks. More specifically, using a widespread rain forest tree species, Distemonanthus benthamianus (Fabaceae), we will test the hypothesis that the DG populations are remnants of a population dating back from the African Humid Period of the Holocene, when West African and Central African rain forests were supposedly connected.LocationTropical forests of Upper Guinea (West Africa) and Lower Guinea (Atlantic Central Africa) and the forest-savanna mosaic of the DG extending from eastern Ghana to Benin.MethodsFour hundred and twenty-nine D. benthamianus samples from West to Central Africa were genotyped with 11 nuclear microsatellite markers. After detecting geographically coherent gene pools, their genetic diversity and differentiation were estimated and their demographic histories were inferred using coalescent simulations and approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) tests.ResultsFive parapatric gene pools were identified: three in Lower Guinea, one in Upper Guinea and one in the DG. ABC tests indicate that the DG gene pool probably originates from the admixture of adjacent Upper and Lower Guinean gene pools, with a higher contribution from Upper Guinea, at a timeframe consistent with the early Holocene (around 13–7 ka). The lower genetic diversity documented in the DG could result from a founder effect and/or from a demographic decline consistent with the Holocene climatic pejoration documented around 3 ka.Main conclusionsThis phylogeographical study inferring the history of the DG populations of D. benthamianus is consistent with palaeovegetation data that suggest that the forest flora of the DG might be essentially relicts of the early Holocene period when the Guineo-Congolian forest reached its maximum geographical distribution.SCOPUS: ar.jFLWINinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Data from: History of the fragmentation of the African rain forest in the Dahomey Gap: insight from the demographic history of Terminalia superba

Paleo-environmental reconstructions show that the distribution of tropical African rain forests was affected by Quaternary climate changes. They suggest that the Dahomey Gap (DG) - the savanna corridor that currently separates Upper Guinean (UG, West Africa) and Lower Guinean (LG, western Central Africa) rain forest blocks – was forested during the African Humid Holocene period (from at least 9 ka till 4.5 ka), and possibly during other interglacial periods, while an open vegetation developed in the DG under drier conditions, notably during glacial maxima. Nowadays, relics of semi-deciduous forests containing UG and LG forest species are still present within the DG. We used one of these species, the pioneer tree Terminalia superba (Combretaceae), to study past forest fragmentation in the DG and its impact on infraspecific biodiversity. A Bayesian clustering analysis of 299 individuals genotyped at 14 nuclear microsatellites revealed five parapatric genetic clusters (UG, DG, and three in LG) with low to moderate genetic differentiation (Fst from 0.02 to 0.24). Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses inferred a demographic bottleneck around the penultimate glacial period in all populations. They also supported an origin of the DG population by admixture of UG and LG populations around 54 000 (27 600 - 161 000) years B.P., thus before the Last Glacial Maximum. These results contrast with those obtained on Distemonanthus benthamianus where the DG population seems to originate from the Humid Holocene period. We discuss these differences in light of the ecology of each species. Our results challenge the simplistic view linking population fragmentation/expansion with glacial/interglacial periods in African forest species

Data from: History of the fragmentation of the African rain forest in the Dahomey Gap: insight from the demographic history of Terminalia superba

Paleo-environmental reconstructions show that the distribution of tropical African rain forests was affected by Quaternary climate changes. They suggest that the Dahomey Gap (DG) - the savanna corridor that currently separates Upper Guinean (UG, West Africa) and Lower Guinean (LG, western Central Africa) rain forest blocks – was forested during the African Humid Holocene period (from at least 9 ka till 4.5 ka), and possibly during other interglacial periods, while an open vegetation developed in the DG under drier conditions, notably during glacial maxima. Nowadays, relics of semi-deciduous forests containing UG and LG forest species are still present within the DG. We used one of these species, the pioneer tree Terminalia superba (Combretaceae), to study past forest fragmentation in the DG and its impact on infraspecific biodiversity. A Bayesian clustering analysis of 299 individuals genotyped at 14 nuclear microsatellites revealed five parapatric genetic clusters (UG, DG, and three in LG) with low to moderate genetic differentiation (Fst from 0.02 to 0.24). Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses inferred a demographic bottleneck around the penultimate glacial period in all populations. They also supported an origin of the DG population by admixture of UG and LG populations around 54 000 (27 600 - 161 000) years B.P., thus before the Last Glacial Maximum. These results contrast with those obtained on Distemonanthus benthamianus where the DG population seems to originate from the Humid Holocene period. We discuss these differences in light of the ecology of each species. Our results challenge the simplistic view linking population fragmentation/expansion with glacial/interglacial periods in African forest species

Demenou-et-al.accepted_Dryad

Column A: Individual ID; Column B: Country of origin; Column C: Location of origin; Column D: Code of Country of origin; Columns E and F: Spatial coordinates of the individuals (degree decimals); Column G: Individuals used for Spatial Genetic Structure, Pswc and Psec (with * individuals not used for STRUCTURE analysis) Columns H to AI: Genotypes of the individuals at the 14 nuclear SSR (P37, P8, P30, P25, P17, P28, P5, P42, P12, P32, P22, P44, P34, P24

Development and Characterization of Microsatellite Markers in the African Deciduous Tree Terminalia superba (Combretaceae)

• Premise of the study: Microsatellites were designed and characterized in the African timber forest tree Terminalia superba(Combretaceae). Due to their high variability, these markers are suitable to investigate gene fl ow patterns and the structure ofgenetic diversity.• Methods and Results: From a genomic library obtained by next-generation sequencing, seven monomorphic and 14 polymorphicmicrosatellite loci were developed. The polymorphic microsatellites displayed two to 27 alleles (mean 11.4; expectedheterozygosity range 0.283–0.940, mean 0.736) in one population from southeastern Cameroon. Genotypes were typical ofan outbreeding diploid species, although null alleles explain a signifi cant heterozygote defi cit in three loci. Cross-amplifi cationin three congeneric species ( T. ivorensis ,T. avicennioides ,and T. mantaly ) failed, suggesting that T. superba is rather divergent.• Conclusions: This set of newly developed microsatellite markers will be useful for assessing the genetic diversity, populationstructure, and demographic history of T. superba in tropical African forests.SCOPUS: ar.jinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Complete Genome Sequences of Septoria linicola: A Resource for Studying a Damaging Flax Pathogen

Fungal genus Septoria causes diseases in a wide range of plants. Here, we report the first genome sequences of two strains of Septoria linicola, the causal agent of the pasmo disease of flax (Linum usitatissimum). The genome of the first strain, SE15195, was fully assembled in 16 chromosomes, while 35 unitigs were obtained for a second strain, SE14017. Structural annotations predicted 13,096 and 13,085 protein-encoding genes and transposable elements content of 19.0 and 18.1% of the genome for SE15195 and SE14017, respectively. The four smaller chromosomes 13 to 16 show genomics features of potential accessory chromosomes. The assembly of these two genomes is a new resource for studying S. linicola and improving management of pasmo. [Graphic: see text] Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license

Phylogenomic analyses reveal an exceptionally high number of evolutionary shifts in a florally diverse clade of African legumes

Detarioideae is well known for its high diversity of floral traits, including flower symmetry, number of organs, and petal size and morphology. This diversity has been characterized and studied at higher taxonomic levels, but limited analyses have been performed among closely related genera with contrasting floral traits due to the lack of fully resolved phylogenetic relationships. Here, we used four representative transcriptomes to develop an exome capture (target enrichment) bait for the entire subfamily and applied it to the Anthonotha clade using a complete data set (61 specimens) representing all extant floral diversity. Our phylogenetic analyses recovered congruent topologies using ML and Bayesian methods. Anthonotha was recovered as monophyletic contrary to the remaining three genera (Englerodendron, Isomacrolobium and Pseudomacrolobium), which form a monophyletic group sister to Anthonotha. We inferred a total of 35 transitions for the seven floral traits (pertaining to flower symmetry, petals, stamens and staminodes) that we analyzed, suggesting that at least 30% of the species in this group display transitions from the ancestral condition reconstructed for the Anthonotha clade. The main transitions were towards a reduction in the number of organs (petals, stamens and staminodes). Despite the high number of transitions, our analyses indicate that the seven characters are evolving independently in these lineages. Petal morphology is the most labile floral trait with a total of seven independent transitions in number and seven independent transitions to modification in petal types. The diverse petal morphology along the dorsoventral axis of symmetry within the flower is not associated with differences at the micromorphology of petal surface, suggesting that in this group all petals within the flower might possess the same petal identity at the molecular level. Our results provide a solid evolutionary framework for further detailed analyses of the molecular basis of petal identity