Data from: Correlated evolution of senescence and ephemeral substrate use in the Sordariomycetes

Evolutionary theory predicts that senescence – a decline in reproduction and survival with increasing age - can evolve as a trade-off between the investment in reproduction on one side and in somatic maintenance and repair on the other side. The ecology of a species is crucial here, since it provides the external causes of death that determine the statistical limit to a species’ lifespan. Filamentous fungi are generally believed to be non-senescent, and there are indeed spectacular examples of very old fungal individuals in nature. Yet, for some fungi the growth conditions are ephemeral and therefore senescence is expected to have evolved, like in the coprophilic Podospora anserina, the only well-studied filamentous fungus with intrinsic senescence. Here we hypothesize that rapid senescence is more common in fungi than generally believed and that the phylogenetic distribution of senescence correlates with its ecology. We examined a set of Sordariomycetes for their lifespan and constructed phylogenies based on several nuclear sequences. Part of the strains were from the CBS culture collection, originally isolated from various substrates, some of which ephemeral. In addition we isolated new strains from short-lived substrates. Senescence was observed throughout the phylogeny. Correlation tests support the hypothesis that in the Sordariomycetes senescence is a trait that has arisen as an evolved adaptation to ephemeral substrates, and that it has evolved repeatedly and independently along the phylogeny.,Alignment ITS sequencesFasta (txt) file with all the aligned ITS sequences of all strains from our culture collection and isolated from dung, used in the analysis to detect correlated evolution between substrate and (rapid) senescence.Alignment non-redundant ITS sequencesFasta (txt) file with the aligned non-redundant ITS sequences, used in the analysis to detect correlated evolution between substrate and (rapid) senescence.Character matrix-non-redundant scenarioBinomic character matrix of the strains used in the non-redundant scenario; Character states: Ephemeral substrate: 1=ephemeral substrate, 0= non-ephemeral substrate; Senescence:1=(rapid) senescence, 0= not senescent within 8 weeks of growth (pdf-file).Character matric-non-redundant scenario.pdfCharacter matrix-best scenarioBinomic character matrix of the strains used in the 'best case' scenario; Character states: Ephemeral substrate: 1=ephemeral substrate, 0= non-ephemeral substrate; Senescence:1=(rapid) senescence, 0= not senescent within 8 weeks of growth (pdf-file).Character matrix-final scenarioBinomic character matrix of the strains used in the final scenario; Character states: Ephemeral substrate: 1=ephemeral substrate, 0= non-ephemeral substrate; Senescence:1=(rapid) senescence, 0= not senescent within 8 weeks of growth (pdf-file).Character matrix-worst case scenarioBinomic character matrix of the strains used in the 'worst case' scenario; Character states: Ephemeral substrate: 1=ephemeral substrate, 0= non-ephemeral substrate; Senescence:1=(rapid) senescence, 0= not senescent within 8 weeks of growth (pdf-file).Tree-all Most Parsimonious ITS trees allAll most Parsimonious trees based on the ITS sequences of all strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).Tree-all Most Parsimonious trees non-redundantAll most Parsimonious trees based on the ITS sequences of non-redundant strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).Tree-Maximum Likelihood ITS non-redundantMaximum Likelihood tree based on the ITS sequences of the non-redundant strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).Tree-Maximum Likelihood ITS tree allMaximum Likelihood tree based on the ITS sequences of all strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).Tree-Minimum Evolution ITS Tree allMinimum Evolution tree based on the ITS sequences of all strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).Tree-Minimum Evolution non-redundantMinimum Evolution tree based on the ITS sequences of the non-redundant strains. In newick format (Mega5; 1000 bootstraps).

Somatic deficiency causes reproductive parasitism in a fungus

Some multicellular organisms can fuse because mergers potentially provide mutual benefits. However, experimental evolution in the fungus Neurospora crassa has demonstrated that free fusion of mycelia favours cheater lineages, but the mechanism and evolutionary dynamics of dishonest exploitation are unknown. Here we show, paradoxically, that all convergently evolved cheater lineages have similar fusion deficiencies. These mutants are unable to initiate fusion but retain access to wild-type mycelia that fuse with them. This asymmetry reduces cheater-mutant contributions to somatic substrate-bound hyphal networks, but increases representation of their nuclei in the aerial reproductive hyphae. Cheaters only benefit when relatively rare and likely impose genetic load reminiscent of germline senescence. We show that the consequences of somatic fusion can be unequally distributed among fusion partners, with the passive non-fusing partner profiting more. We discuss how our findings may relate to the extensive variation in fusion frequency of fungi found in nature

Somatic deficiency causes reproductive parasitism in a fungus

Some multicellular organisms can fuse because mergers potentially provide mutual benefits. However, experimental evolution in the fungus Neurospora crassa has demonstrated that free fusion of mycelia favours cheater lineages, but the mechanism and evolutionary dynamics of dishonest exploitation are unknown. Here we show, paradoxically, that all convergently evolved cheater lineages have similar fusion deficiencies. These mutants are unable to initiate fusion but retain access to wild-type mycelia that fuse with them. This asymmetry reduces cheater-mutant contributions to somatic substrate-bound hyphal networks, but increases representation of their nuclei in the aerial reproductive hyphae. Cheaters only benefit when relatively rare and likely impose genetic load reminiscent of germline senescence. We show that the consequences of somatic fusion can be unequally distributed among fusion partners, with the passive non-fusing partner profiting more. We discuss how our findings may relate to the extensive variation in fusion frequency of fungi found in nature

data from the Relevance of heterokaryosis for adaptation and azole-resistance development in Aspergillus fumigatus

Figure 3. The azole resistance of heterokaryons constructed from environmental isolates relative to that of the individual homokaryons and heterozygous diploids was measured as the mycelial growth rate on azole. igure 5. The nuclear ratio of heterokaryons (SNG & SCW, ING & SCW and RNG & SCW) based on the nuclear ratio in the uni-nucleate spores from the heterokaryon grown on different concentrations of difenoconazole (0 or 1µg/mL)

Fungus-associated bacteriome in charge of their host behavior

Bacterial-fungal interactions are widespread in nature and there is a growing number of studies reporting distinct fungus-associated bacteria. However, little is known so far about how shifts in the fungus-associated bacteriome will affect the fungal host's lifestyle. In the present study, we describe for the first time the bacterial community associated with the saprotrophic fungus . Mucor hiemalis, commonly found in soil and rhizosphere. Two broad-spectrum antibiotics that strongly altered the bacterial community associated with the fungus were applied. Our results revealed that the antibiotic treatment did not significantly reduce the amount of bacteria associated to the fungus but rather changed the community composition by shifting from initially dominating . Alpha-Proteobacteria to dominance of . Gamma-Proteobacteria. A novel approach was applied for the isolation of fungal-associated bacteria which also revealed differences between bacterial isolates obtained from the original and the antibiotic-treated . M. . hiemalis. The shift in the composition of the fungal-associated bacterial community led to significantly reduced fungal growth, changes in fungal morphology, behavior and secondary-metabolites production. Furthermore, our results showed that the antibiotic-treated isolate was more attractive and susceptible to mycophagous bacteria as compared to the original isolate. Overall, our study highlights the importance of the fungus-associated bacteriome for the host's lifestyle and interactions and indicate that isolation with antibacterials is not sufficient to eradicate the associated bacteria

Aspergillus fumigatus Genome sequencing

Lines evolved for resistance to SI fungicides were whole genome sequenced to uncover the genetic underpinning of phenotypic differences found. Lines that showed increased resistance to environmentally used fungicides, also show increased resistance against medically used fungicides. The increases of this resistance in evolutionary times could be explained by mutations found in genes previously described to confer fungicide resistance as well as in genes previuously not described to confer resistance

Aspergillus fumigatus Genome sequencing

Lines evolved for resistance to SI fungicides were whole genome sequenced to uncover the genetic underpinning of phenotypic differences found. Lines that showed increased resistance to environmentally used fungicides, also show increased resistance against medically used fungicides. The increases of this resistance in evolutionary times could be explained by mutations found in genes previously described to confer fungicide resistance as well as in genes previuously not described to confer resistance