KRIEVU KALNS HILL-FORT: NEW DATA ON THE LATE BRONZE AGE AND PRE-ROMAN IRON AGE IN WESTERN LATVIA

The article examines the results of the 2012 and 2013 archaeological excavations of Skrundas Krievu kalns hill-fort, situated in western Latvia. Krievu kalns was listed as a site in the 1920s, but it was not regarded as a hill-fort. During a site inspection, striated pottery was discovered, and this indicated that it might be numbered as a Late Bronze Age and Pre-Roman Iron Age habitation. Excavations revealed the site to be a hill-fort that was fortified in the 11th to the ninth century BC with a palisade made of vertical timbers. In the eighth to the fiftth century BC, the defences were moved outwards, thus enlarging the living area. There was possibly even later a third fence. Krievu kalns may be classed as a Late Bronze Age hill-fort with striated pottery, reflecting the characteristic Bronze Age cultural traditions of western Latvia.Key words: Krievu kalns, hill-fort, buildings, finds, Late Bronze Age, Pre-Roman Iron Age.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ab.v26i0.202

ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL FROM THE PADURE (BELTES) HILL-FORT IN LATVIA: BUTCHERING TECHNIQUES AND THE COMPOSITION OF SPECIES

In the excavated Padure (Beltes) hill-fort in Latvia, cultural layers from the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (Stage 1), and the Middle Iron Age and the Late Iron Age (Stage 2), were detected, which, besides the archaeological material typical of that period, provided abundant zooarchaeological material. This article presents the investigation data from the zooarchaeological material of both stages: the data relate to the butchering techniques used, and the identification of the composition of the faunal species. The investigation was carried out in the bioarchaeological laboratory of the Institute of Baltic Region History and Archaeology at Klaipėda University. As is proven by the investigation, the ratio of domestic animals to hunted wildlife in the two periods compared is not identical. In the second period of habitation of the hill-fort, the number of cattle and sheep/goats decreased, while the number of swine and especially of horses increased. The article also deals with characteristics of butchering techniques of domestic animals and wildlife in both periods of the habitation of the hill-fort, and changes identified in the meat processing. In the second period, the level of processing resulted in greater amounts of meat suitable for food, due to the technical properties of the raw material and the nutritional and commodity value.Key words: Padure (Beltes) hill-fort, Latvia, zooarchaeology, Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, slaughtering.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ab.v20i0.81

NEW TECHNOLOGY OR ADAPTATION AT THE FRONTIER? BUTCHERY AS A SIGNIFIER OF CULTURAL TRANSITIONS IN THE MEDIEVAL EASTERN BALTIC

This paper focuses on a number of examples of cut marks on animal bones from a range of sites associated with the cultural transformations in the eastern Baltic following the Crusades in the 13th century. Recorded observational and interpretational characteristics are quantified and explained through more detailed selected case studies. The study represents a pilot project, the foundation for a more detailed and systematic survey of a larger dataset within the framework of the ecology of Crusading project. Relatively clear differences between sites are observable on the basis of the cut marks; however, the initial trends do not suggest a straightforward connection between butchery technology and colonisation in the east Baltic region.Key words: zooarchaeology, butchery, technology, Crusades, colonisation, Teutonic Order, eastern Baltic.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ab.v20i0.80

The Baltic Crusades and ecological transformation: The zooarchaeology of conquest and cultural change in the Eastern Baltic in the second millennium AD

From the end of the 12th century, crusading armies unleashed a relentless holy war against the indigenous pagan societies in the Eastern Baltic region. Native territories were reorganised as new Christian states (Livonia and Prussia) largely run by a militarised theocracy, dominated by the Teutonic Order. The new regime constructed castles, encouraged colonists, developed towns and introduced Christianity, incorporating the conquered territories into Latin Europe. At the same time, the theocracy sought to maximise the exploitation of natural resources to sustain its political and military assets, as well as provision its subjects. Arguably the most important resource was represented by animals, which were exploited for a range of primary and secondary products. Excavations across the eastern Baltic have uncovered tens of thousands of faunal remains from archaeological contexts on either side of the crusading period. Traditionally studied in isolation, the zooarchaeological data is here for the first time compared across the conquered territories, supported with isotopic analyses and integrated with other paleoenvironmental and historical sources, revealing how the new regime appropriated and intensified existing livestock husbandry practices, whilst accentuating earlier trends in declining biodiversity. At the same time, agricultural changes led to improved feeding regimes, resulting in noticeable changes in the size of stock in some regions

Late-Medieval Horse Remains at Cesis Castle, Latvia, and the Teutonic Order's Equestrian Resources in Livonia

EXCAVATIONS AT the castle complex of Cēsis, Latvia, uncovered an unusual find of large quantities of horse bones, some of which were partially articulated, along with equestrian equipment. These were associated with a destroyed building at the edge of the southern outer bailey. The horses included large males, most probably stallions, and pathology on several of the recovered vertebrae suggests these individuals had been used for riding. The size of the horses was within the range for medieval war horses, and the associated tack also pointed to prestigious riding animals. Radiocarbon dating of the bones placed them firmly within the Teutonic Order's period of rule. We conclude here that these horses fulfilled a military role in the final decades of the Teutonic Order’s rule in Livonia in the late 15th/early 16th century and that the better-known equestrian culture of late-medieval Prussia was comparable in character, if not in scale, to that in Livonia

Biomolecular evidence reveals mares and long-distance imported horses sacrificed by the last pagans in temperate Europe

Horse sacrifice and deposition are enigmatic features of funerary rituals identified across prehistoric Europe that persisted in the eastern Baltic. Genetic and isotopic analysis of horses in Balt cemeteries [1st to 13th centuries CE (Common Era)] dismantle prevailing narratives that locally procured stallions were exclusively selected. Strontium isotope analysis provides direct evidence for long-distance(~300 to 1500 kilometers) maritime transport of Fennoscandian horses to the eastern Baltic in the Late Viking Age (11th to 13th centuries CE). Genetic analysis proves that horses of both sexes were sacrificed with 34% identified as mares. Results transform the understanding of selection criteria, disprove sex-based selection, and elevate prestige value as a more crucial factor. These findings also provide evidence that the continued interaction between pagans and their newly Christianized neighbors sustained the performance of funerary horse sacrifice until the medieval transition. We also present a reference 87Sr/86Sr isoscape for the southeastern Baltic, releasing the potential of future mobility studies in the region

Остеологические данные о рыбах и тюленях из поселений Швянтойи

Visose įvairių laikotarpių Šventosios gyvenvietėse buvo medžiojami keturių rūšių ruoniai: ilgasnukis ruonis (Halychocnts grypus), paprastasis ruonis (Phoca vitulina), žieduotasis ruonis (Phoca hispida) ir Grenlandijos ruonis (Pagophylus groenlandicus). Ankstyvajame ir viduriniame neolite buvo jau medžiojami ir delfinai (Jūros kiaulė Phocoena phocoena). Tiriant Šventosios gyvenviečių žuvų kaulus nustatyta, kad buvo gaudomos tiek gėlavandenės, tiek jūrinės žuvys. Aptikta daug gėlavandenių žuvų rūšių: lydeka, ešerys, raudė ir kitos karpinės žuvys. Tarp jūroje gaudomų žuvų rūšių priklauso atlantinė ir ledjūrio menkės (Gadidae), gundalinės (Gobiide) ar jūrinės plekšnės (Pleuronectcs platessa). Lašišos (Salmonidae) yra migruojančios rūšys ir jas galima buvo pagauti tiek sūriuose, tiek gėluose vandenyse. Suskirsčius tirtas gyvenvietes į ankstyvojo neolito (Šventoji 1 B,Šventoji 2 B, Šventoji 4B), vidurinio neolito (Šventoji 3B, Šventoji 23, Šventoji 26) ir vėlyvojo neolito (Šventoji 6) laikotarpius nustatėme, kad visuose laikotarpiuose buvo medžiojami keturių rūšių ruoniai: ilgasnukis ruonis (Halychoentsgiypus), paprastasis ruonis (Phoca vitulina) ir žieduotasis ruonis (Phoca hispida), Grenlandijos ruonis (Pagophylus groenlandicus), o ankstyvajame bei viduriniame neolite ir delfinai (Jūros kiaulė Phocoena phocoena). Reikšminiai žodžiai: Šventoji; Ruoniai; Delfinai; Žvejyba; Šventoji; Seal; Dolphin; FishingFour species of seals were hunted in all Šventoji settlements during different periods, which were as follows: the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), the common seal (Phoca vitulina), the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and the harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus). Dolphins were already hunted in the Early and Middle Neolithic Periods (the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena). Research on fish bones in Šventoji settlements has revealed that both freshwater and marine fish were caught. A large number of freshwater fish species were discovered, which were as follows: the pike, the perch, the rudd and other carp fish. Marine fish species included the cod and the coalfish (Gadidae), the goby (Gobiidae) and the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Salmonidae are migrating species and could be caught both in salt and fresh waters. After grouping the settlements researched into the Early Neolithic Period (Šventoji 1B, Šventoji 2B, Šventoji 4B), the Middle Neolithic Period (Šventoji 3B, Šventoji 23, Šventoji 26) and the Late Neolithic Period (Šventoji 6), we have established that, during all of the periods, the following four seal species were hunted: the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), the common seal (Phoca vitulina), the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and the harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus), and, in the Early and Middle Neolithic Eras, dolphins (the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena) were hunted

Dar kartą apie legendą : recenzija

Apie senokai legenda tapusį Andriaus Olekos-Žilinsko darbą Lietuvoje 1929–1934 m. rašyta daug, gal net daugiau negu apie kitus tarpukario Lietuvos teatro reiškinius ir įvykius. Be visų kitų publikacijų šia tema – gana išsami Gintaro Aleknonio monografija "Pakeliui: Režisierius Andrius Oleka-Žilinskas (2001)". Atrodo, ką čia nauja pasakysi: atvažiavo talentingas menininkas – artistas, režisierius – į gimtinę ir tamsuolių bei pavyduolių buvo „suvalgytas“, neapsikentęs provincijos rutinos pabėgo į Ameriką. Bent taip liudija teatro istorijos ir teatralų (daugiausia Olekos-Žilinsko mokinių) prisiminimai. Tokių minčių vedamas sėdausi skaityti Petronėlės Česnulevičiūtės (1925–1911) paskutiniosios (jau pomirtinės) knygos Andrius Oleka-Žilinskas, Balys Sruoga ir kiti. Knygos autorė puikiai nujautė galimą skaitytojo skepsį, tad įžanginiame skyriuje „Klausimai – atsakymai. Ir vėl klausimai (Vietoj pratarmės) priversta teisintis, kad imasi tokios nučiupinėtos temos, iškelia dvi rūpimų klausimų grupes. Pirmoji bendresnė: koks buvo ano meto mūsų teatras, teatro žmonės ir teatro publika – ar tikrai tokie jau tamsūs ir provincialūs? Antroji daugiau liečia konkrečiai Oleką-Žilinską: kodėl ir kaip menininką, turėjusį gana tvirtą užnugarį (jo veiklą rėmė tokie autoritetai kaip Vincas Krėvė, Stasys Šilingas, Levas Karsavinas, Vladimiras Šilkarskis, Mstislavas Dobužinskis ir ypač Balys Sruoga), taip lengvai sudorojo negeranoriai kritikai? Taip suformuluoti klausimai leidžia ne tik atskleisti, kaip viskas vyko, bet ir – kodėl. O neaiškumų šioje istorijoje, pasirodo, tikrai nemaža. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Akistatos; Andrius Oleka-Žilinskas; Balys Sruoga; Modernizmas; Režisūra; Atsiminimai; Teatro istorija; Andrius Oleka-Žilinskas; Balys Sruoga; Confrontations; Critics; Memories; New interpretation; Theater histor

Geneviêve. Sources and variants

Every literature, especially play writing, has recurrent plots, which resurface again and again. Such destiny plots are interpreted anew by each generation – looking at them from its own viewpoint and experience. Sometimes, heroes, martyrs, and saints from distant lands, quiet unexpectedly, gain relevance in literature of other nations, while works depicting them exert a critical influence on local literature. One of such figures is saint Genovaitė from Brabant. One can find plays about her written in French, German, Polish, Latvian, and Lithuanian, and maybe also in literary works of other nations. One of the works that decisively influenced the evolution of Lithuanian theatre and play writing went by eponymous name “Genovaitė”. This is how it is introduced most of the time: with no reference to the author, sometimes it is remarked that it is a staging of German author Christof von Schmidt’s (1768–1854) didactic short story. Theatre historian Vytautas Maknys points out six plays by Lithuanian authors with the same name: by Jonas Grinius, Aleksandras Vitkauskas, Gabrielius Landsbergis-Žemkalnis, Jonas Marcinkus-Tauronis, Motiejus Gustaitis, and Antanas Šmulkštys-Paparonis (a manuscript). The article seeks to retrace where did the plot of “Genovaitė” descend from and what path it covered before entering Lithuanian literature