Physiological Responses of Dogs to Different Housing Systems

Background: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis undergoes adaptations throughout housing system that might contribute to the avoidance of adverse effects of welfare status in dogs housed in a shelter. Nevertheless, the influence of housing systems and stabling time on glucose and PCV changes is little known. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the patterns of cortisol, glucose and PCV in dogs housed in a kennel and normal environments, evaluating the differences between housing systems, by taking account the different stabling time and sex. Materials, Methods & Results: The study comprised 98 cross-breed dogs, aged 4 ± 1.5 years, lodged in a kennel (observational group I: N= 61, 29 females and 27 males), in paired household dogs (control group II: N= 25, 13 females and 12 males) and in unpaired household dogs (control group III: N= 12, 6 females and 6 males). Females of both groups were spayed. The subjects were studied on the basis of different stabling times, ranged among <1 year, 2 years and 4 years, and different sex.Discussion: This observational study showed that kennelled males lodged for 2 (P < 0.01) and 4 (P < 0.001) years showed lower cortisol concentrations than males lodged <1 year, males lodged for <1 year (P < 0.001) showed higher cortisol concentrations than females; males lodged for 4 year showed lower cortisol concentrations (P < 0.01) than females. Kennelled females lodged for 4 year showed higher PCV values (P < 0.001) than females lodged for <1 year. Paired and unpaired household females and males lodged for 4 years showed lower cortisol concentrations (P < 0.01) than 2 years and <1 year. Paired and unpaired household females and males lodged for short-, medium- and long-term times showed higher glucose concentrations (P < 0.001) than kennelled dogs. This study showed significant changes of circulating cortisol, glucose and PCV values inter- and intra-groups, according to different housing systems, stabling time and sex. The magnitude of cortisol decreases after 2 and 4 years of stabling time in kennelled male dogs could suggest a stimulus-response relationship, probably due to adaptive responses. Interestingly enough in this observational study was that the exact consummatory event could be represented by the long stabling time itself, observed only in males. Moreover, the significant differences of cortisol concentrations between males and females in group I after a stabling time of <1 and 4 years confirm the wide variability of HPA activity independent of the different sex of dogs. The physiological higher glucose concentrations in household dogs than kennel dogs showed that the normal home environment offers probably more rich stimuli than kennel, independent of stabling times and sex. It is possible to suppose that the housing system of dogs also results in significant rise of organ reserve and adaptability, presumably due at early greatest in functional changes in the catecholaminergic system and related increased hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Concerning the PCV changes, data obtained confirmed the disagreement among authors about sex differences in the circulating mass of erythrocytes according to different age and sex. In conclusion, this is an observational study on the adaptive responses of circulating cortisol, glucose and PCV patterns to different housing systems in both kennel and household, leading to the question of physiological relevance concerning the effects of different stabling, according to the quality of dogs' life

Total and free iodothyronines profile in the donkey ( Equus asinus ) over a 12-month period

Several studies show the correlation between thyroid function and reproductive activity in horses, but no data are available in donkeys. The aim of this study was to determine physiological thyroid changes occurring in 10 pregnant and 14 barren donkeys over a period of 12 months. Blood samples were collected monthly from the jugular vein of pregnant and barren donkeys from June 2008 to June 2009. No significant differences (P < 0.05) in iodothyronine concentrations were observed between pregnant and barren donkeys in the same month. Seasonal total thyroxine (T4) and free triiodothyronine (fT3) patterns remained unmodified, regardless of physiological state, with the lowest T4 levels at September and the highest at February, and the lowest fT3 levels at June and the highest at July, in both pregnant and barren donkeys. Ranges of total triiodothyronine (T3) concentrations in pregnant donkeys over a 12 months period ranged from 1.57 to 2.90 nmol/l, T4 from 31.01 to 63.67 nmol/l, fT3 from 3.15 to 15.52 pmol/l and free thyroxine (fT4) from 22.47 to 33.69 pmol/l. Mean T3 concentrations in barren donkeys over a 12 months period ranged from 1.64 to 3.37 nmol/l, T4 from 42.95 nmol/l and 61.90 nmol/l, fT3 from 3.15 to 11.19 pmol/l and fT4 from 25.46 to 35.06 pmol/l. This is the first study that provided a seasonal thyroid hormonal profile in healthy barren and pregnant donkeys

Pituitary-adrenal axis responses to routine management procedures in sheep (Ovis aries)

Background: Shearing is considered as a stressful factor in sheep, capable of causing some behavioural changes including variations of body condition and hormonal and haematochemical parameters. On these basis, circulating ACTH and cortisol concentrations were determined in sheep before and after exposure to aversive stimuli in order to evaluate the potential use of these hormones to objectively measure physical and mental stress responses to isolation, restraint and shearing.Materials, Methods & Results: Forty Pinzirita sheep, used as experimental group, were evaluated in baseline conditions, 24 h before isolation, restraint and shearing (T0), after isolation (T1), after restraint and shearing (T2), by taking into account the influence of previous shearing experience (just shorn). A control group of forty sheep (intact) was evaluated in baseline condition (T0). According to previous experience the experimental subjects were divided in two groups, respectively group A represented by 20 sheep (10 males and 10 females), aged 1-2 years, without previous shearing experience (intact); and group B represented by 20 sheep (10 males and 10 females), aged older than 2 years, previously exposed to shearing (just shorn). A control group C of 40 sheep splitted into two sub-groups represented by 10 intact males and 10 intact females, aged 1-2 years, and 10 males and 10 females just shorn, aged older than 2 years, was evaluated in baseline conditions (T0). Blood samples were collected 24 h before experimental practices (T0: 08:00 h), after 1 h after of isolation (T1) and after restraint and shearing, around an average of 5 min (T2). All samples were taken in quiet conditions by the same operator. Serum ACTH concentrations were assayed by a commercial radioimmunoassay (RIA). Serum cortisol concentrations were assayed by amplified Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA). Two-way RM ANOVA showed a significant effect of husbandry procedures on ACTH changes, with higher ACTH and cortisol concentrations of just shorn than intact males (F = 15.76; P < 0.0001) and females (F = 17.34; P < 0.0005), and on cortisol changes, with higher cortisol concentrations of just shorn than intact males (F = 6.54; P < 0.01) and females (F = 22.66; P < 0.0001).Discussion: The highest ACTH and cortisol values after isolation, with an appreciable increase especially after restraint and shearing in just shorn sheep, showed that the previous shearing exposure could not induce a habituation to the stimulus, probably promoting a larger release of ACTH and cortisol hormones, so inducing an early and marked coping response to stress in just shorn specimens. Thus, it would appear that different ACTH and cortisol responses of sheep with or without previous shearing experience over the study period resulted in some significant differences when exposed to isolation, restraint and shearing, probably due to changes in pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Nevertheless, it is possible to interpret the increase in ACTH and cortisol concentrations related to intrinsic endocrine control mechanisms as an increase due to a rise in the stressful stimulus or coping response. The magnitude of ACTH and cortisol changes following isolation, restraint and shearing suggests that measurements of both hormones are useful in assessing husbandry procedures stress in sheep, with marked elevations in just shorn sheep, indicating that experience can induce an early much larger coping response to stressful practice of shearing

Comparison of Acute versus Chronic Stress Responses to Different Housing's Systems of Cats

Background: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and functional systems undergo the assessment of stress levels throughout living environments, contributing to avoid side effects to well-being in domestic animals, including pets. Cortisol represents the most important glucocorticoid found in felis and it is frequently used as standard marker in stress research. The purpose of the present study was to compare the adrenal and haematological patterns of cats, by taking into account the effects of different housing's systems. The hypothesis was to find a different coping strategies, according to different housings.Materials, Methods & Results: For this study a total of 50 cats were selected on the basis of the breed: European domestic short hair cats, age ranged between 22 and 30 months and housing's systems, represented by cattery and/or households, respectively. On these basis, cats were distinguished into two groups, represented by group A: 22 cats living in cattery, and group B: 28 cats living in households. Blood samples were collected twice a week, for two consecutive days, during one month and subsequently analysed for haematological analysis and cortisol concentrations. Group B showed higher cortisol concentrations (P < 0.01), Red Blood Cell (P < 0.05), Packed Cell Volume (P < 0.001), Platelets (P < 0.01), Heart Rate and Respiratory Rate (P < 0.05) values, and lower White Blood Cell (P < 0.001) than group A.Discussion: This observational study showed that cats housed in the households group showed higher cortisol, RBC, PCV, Plt, HR and RR values, and lower WBC rather than cattery's cats. Another point is that males showed higher RBC, PCV, WBC and Plt than females, irrespective of different housing's systems. The significant lower threshold of cortisol levels in cattery's cats than household's cats could suggest that these subjects were probably totally accustomed to cattery's environment; though these animals were daily stimulated by predictable stimuli and manipulations, characterized by handling and husbandry routine, regular feeding and cleaning times, standard caretaking. On the other hand, the higher cortisol concentrations observed in household's cats could be due to the different environmental stimuli, characterized by unpredictable handling, modified caretaking, presence of irregular talking, petting and manipulations by owners, which promote probably the expression of species and appropriate behaviour with stimulating activities. The significant highest RBC and PCV values in subjects of group B could be explained on the basis of the more intense activity of these subjects, according to the access to outdoor area. These concomitant higher values were corroborated in the present study by the not surprising positive and significant correlation observed between corresponding RBC and PCV values. The higher PCV values observed in cats of group B could be suggest that their daily frequent activity induced a physiological erythrocytosis, compared to sedentary cattery's cats. The hypothesis that the home represented more rousing than cattery setting was assessed by the physiological and consistent higher cortisol, RBC, PCV, Plt, HR and RR displayed in the home environment; The only difference between the two groups was that environmental stimulus (chronic stress) was cattery for group A, whereas household for group B. Obtained data indicate that there was a marked benefit in to establish a personnel-cat relationship in addition to the traditionally owner-cat relationship, providing physiological coping strategies in both cattery and home cats; this was corroborate in the present study by the wide but physiological cortisol range. This study indicates that predictability, familiarity and unpredictability are significantly associated with environmental stimuli and with quality of pets' life

Total and free iodothyronines profile in the donkey (Equus asinus) over a 12-month period

Several studies show the correlation between thyroid function and reproductive activity in horses, but no data are available in donkeys. The aim of this study was to determine physiological thyroid changes occurring in 10 pregnant and 14 barren donkeys over a period of 12 months. Blood samples were collected monthly from the jugular vein of pregnant and barren donkeys from June 2008 to June 2009. No significant differences (P 4) and free triiodothyronine (fT3) patterns remained unmodified, regardless of physiological state, with the lowest T4 levels at September and the highest at February, and the lowest fT3 levels at June and the highest at July, in both pregnant and barren donkeys. Ranges of total triiodothyronine (T3) concentrations in pregnant donkeys over a 12 months period ranged from 1.57 to 2.90 nmol/l, T4 from 31.01 to 63.67 nmol/l, fT3 from 3.15 to 15.52 pmol/l and free thyroxine (fT4) from 22.47 to 33.69 pmol/l. Mean T3 concentrations in barren donkeys over a 12 months period ranged from 1.64 to 3.37 nmol/l, T4 from 42.95 nmol/l and 61.90 nmol/l, fT3 from 3.15 to 11.19 pmol/l and fT4 from 25.46 to 35.06 pmol/l. This is the first study that provided a seasonal thyroid hormonal profile in healthy barren and pregnant donkeys

Influence of training and competitive sessions on peripheral β-endorphin levels in training show jumping horses

Aim: To investigate the effects of training sessions on circulating β-endorphin changes in sport horses before and after competition and to ascertain whether competition would affect this response. Materials and Methods: A total of 24 trained jumping horses were randomly assigned to one of two training groups: Group A (competing) and Group B (not competing). To determined plasma β-endorphin concentrations, two pre- and postcompetition training weeks at aerobic workout and two competitive show jumping event days at anaerobic workout were measured before, 5 and 30 min after exercise. Exercise intensity is described using lactate concentrations and heart rate. The circuit design, intensity, and duration of training sessions were the same for both groups. Results: In Group A, one-way analysis of variance for repeated measures (RM-ANOVA) showed significant effects of exercise on β-endorphin changes (F=14.41; p<0.001), only in the post-competition training sessions, while in Group B showed no significant effects. Two-way RM-ANOVA showed, after post-competition training sessions, a significant difference between Group A and Group B (F=6.235; p=0.023), with higher β-endorphin changes in Group A, compared to Group B. During the competitive show jumping sessions, one-way RM ANOVA showed significant effects of exercise on β-endorphin changes (F=51.10; p<0.001). The statistical analysis, in Group A, showed a significant difference between postcompetition training and competitive exercise (F=6.32; p=0.024) with higher β-endorphin values in competitive sessions compared to those of post-competition training. Conclusion: Lactate concentrations seem to be the main factors being correlated with the raise of β-endorphin during anaerobic exercise of competitive events. Exercise of low intensity, as well as that one of training sessions, does not appear to stimulate a significant increased release of β-endorphin and it may depend on the duration of the exercise program. Moreover, the responses during exercise in the course of post-competition training sessions seem to be significantly different from those the pre-competition training. These data show that the preliminary competitive stress induced additional significant changes of β-endorphin pattern. It would reflect the need of a long-lasting modulation of fatigue and pain perception related to the effect of an additional physical and mental effort for the consecutive competitive and training sessions

Thyroid and Lipid Status in Guide Dogs During Training: Effects of Dietary Protein and Fat Content

Nutrition plays a leading role that most influences thyroid response and energetic metabolism. Aim was to compare the effect of diet on thyroid and lipid status in guide dogs during a 12-weeks training period. Eight Labrador Retrievers were divided into two groups homogeneous for sex, age, body weight, and Body Condition Score (BCS) and fed two commercial diets one, HPF, characterized by low-carbohydrate/high-protein/high-fat (29%:39%:19% as-fed) and the other, LPF, by high-carbohydrate/low-protein/low-fat (50%:24%:12% as-fed) content. The serum thriiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), cholesterol (CHOL), triglycerides (TAGs) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were determined at Day 0, 28, 56, and 84, before the daily training. Statistical model included the effects of Diet (HPF vs. LPF) and Time (Day 0 to Day 84), and their interaction. In the HPF group, Diet significantly (p &lt; 0.01) increased T4, CHOL, and TAGs and decreased NEFA. In both groups, Time significantly (p &lt; 0.05) increased T4 and TAGs, CHOL at Day 28, and NEFA at Day 56. The interaction did not influence serum hormones and lipid pattern. The adjustments in thyroid and lipid responses to moderate exercise in HPF group were driven mainly by the nutrient composition of the diet in relation to the involvement of metabolic homeostasis

The different hormonal system during exercise stress coping in horses

The review discusses the hormonal changes during exercise stress. The exercise generally produces a rise of adrenaline (A), noradrenaline (NA), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone, arginine vasopressine, etc., and a drop of insulin. The hormonal events during reestablishment of homeostasis due to exercise stress can be divided into a catabolic phase, with decreased tolerance of effort, and reversible biochemical, hormonal and immunological changes, and an anabolic phase, with a higher adaptive capacity, and enhanced performance. The two main hormonal axes activated in the catabolic phase are sympathetic–adrenal–medullary system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, while in the anabolic phase, growth hormone-insulin-like factor I axis, and gonadal axes. The hormonal responses during exercise and recovery can be regarded as regulatory and integrated endocrine responses. The increase of catecholamines and ACTH is dependent on the intensity of exercise; a marked increase in plasma A occurs during exercises with high emotional content. The response of cortisol is correlated with the duration of exercise, while the effect of exercise duration on β-endorphin changes is highly dependent on the type of exercise performed. Cortisol and β-endorphin changes usually occur in phase, but not during exercises with high emotional content. Glucocorticoids and iodothyronines are involved in meeting immediate energy demands, and a model of functional interactions between HPA axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis during exercise stress is proposed. A modulation of coping responses to different energy demanding physical activities required for sport activities could be hypothesized. This review supports the proposed regulation of hypophysiotropic TRHergic neurons as metabolic integrators during exercise stress. Many hormonal systems (ghrelin, leptin, glucose, insulin, and cortisol) are activated to control substrate mobilizations and utilization. The cardiovascular homeostasis, the fluid and electrolyte balance during exercise are highly dependent on vasoactive hormones (antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic peptide, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone, and prostaglandins) control

ASSESSMENT OF CIRCULATING TOTAL AND FREE IODOTHYRONINES’ PATTERNS IN ADULT OVINE AND CAPRINE SPECIMENS: INFLUENCES OF ENDEMIC GOITRE AREA

North-eastern Sicily is an area with iodine deficiency disorders occurring in both humans and animals. The aim of this study was to test the influences of an endemic goitre area on iodothyronine ranges and their pattern in adult ovine and caprine specimens stabled in different locations of Sicily, taking into account the different sexes. A total of 48 Comisana sheep and 51 Maltese goats was studied. The sheep included 10 females and 6 males stabled in a non-endemic goitre area (farm A: control group), and 16 females and 16 males stabled in an endemic goitre area (farm B: observational group). The goats included 6 females and 13 males stabled in a non-endemic goitre area (farm A: control group), and 16 females and 16 males stabled in an endemic goitre area (Farm B: observational group). The results showed lower T3 and higher fT4 (P<0.0001) levels in female and male sheep, and higher T4 levels in males (P<0.0001) stabled in farm B than in farm A. In comparison to farm A, goats stabled in farm B showed higher fT3 (P<0.0001) levels; males stabled in farm B showed lower T4 levels (P<0.0001), and females showed higher fT4 levels (P<0.0001). Significant effects of sex and of endemic goitre area on the total and free iodothyronines of sheep and goats were observed. The obtained data showed that an endemic goitre area for humans is not necessarily the same for ovine and caprine species, which seem to be able to adopt an adaptive strategy without presenting any clinical signs of thyroid disorders. Key words: thyroid hormones; sheep; goat; endemic goitre area   DOLOČANJE VEZANIH IN PROSTIH ŠČITNIČNIH HORMONOV V KRVI PRI ODRASLIH OVCAH IN KOZAH: VPLIV ENDEMIČNIH OBMOČIJ Z GOLŠAVOSTJO Severovzhodna Sicilija je območje, kjer se redno pojavljajo motnje, povezane s pomanjkanjem joda pri ljudeh in živalih. Cilj raziskave je bil raziskati pojavnost endemične golšavosti pri odraslih ovcah in kozah z merjenjem ravni jodotironinov na različnih lokacijah na Siciliji. Upoštevane so bile tudi razlike med spoloma. Skupno je bilo v raziskavo vključenih 48 ovc pasme comisana in 51 malteških koz. Pri ovcah je bilo vključenih 10 samic in 6 samcev z območij brez golšavosti (kmetija A: kontrolna skupina) ter po 16 samic in samcev iz endemičnih območij z golšavostjo (kmetija B: opazovana skupina). Pri kozah je bilo vključenih 6 samic in 13 samcev iz območij brez golšavosti (kmetija A: kontrolna skupina) in po 16 samic in samcev iz endemičnih območij z golšavostjo (kmetija B: opazovana skupina). Rezultati so pokazali nižje T3 in višje T4 vrednosti (p < 0,0001), ki so bili nastanjeni na kmetiji B v primerjavi s kmetijo A. V primerjavi s kmetijo A so pri kozah, ki so bile nastanjene na kmetiji B, ugotovili višje ravni prostega T3 (p < 0,0001), pri samcih na kmetiji B nižje ravni T4 (p < 0,0001), pri samicah pa višjo raven prostega T4 (p < 0,0001). Ugotovljene so bile statistično značilne razlike med skupinami tako glede na spol kot glede na endemičnost področja na ravni vezanih in prostih jodotironinov pri ovcah in kozah. Pridobljeni podatki so pokazali, da območja z endemično golšavostjo pri ljudeh nimajo nujno enakega učinka pri ovcah in kozah, za katere se zdi, da so sposobne ustvariti prilagoditveno strategijo, zaradi katere se ne pokažejo klinični znaki bolezni ščitnice. Ključne besede: ščitnični hormoni; ovce; koze; endemična območja z golšavostj

Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses to Routine Management Procedures in Sheep (Ovis aries)

Background: Shearing is considered as a stressful factor in sheep, capable of causing some behavioural changes including variations of body condition and hormonal and haematochemical parameters. On these basis, circulating ACTH and cortisol concentrations were determined in sheep before and after exposure to aversive stimuli in order to evaluate the potential use of these hormones to objectively measure physical and mental stress responses to isolation, restraint and shearing.Materials, Methods & Results: Forty Pinzirita sheep, used as experimental group, were evaluated in baseline conditions, 24 h before isolation, restraint and shearing (T0), after isolation (T1), after restraint and shearing (T2), by taking into account the influence of previous shearing experience (just shorn). A control group of forty sheep (intact) was evaluated in baseline condition (T0). According to previous experience the experimental subjects were divided in two groups, respectively group A represented by 20 sheep (10 males and 10 females), aged 1-2 years, without previous shearing experience (intact); and group B represented by 20 sheep (10 males and 10 females), aged older than 2 years, previously exposed to shearing (just shorn). A control group C of 40 sheep splitted into two sub-groups represented by 10 intact males and 10 intact females, aged 1-2 years, and 10 males and 10 females just shorn, aged older than 2 years, was evaluated in baseline conditions (T0). Blood samples were collected 24 h before experimental practices (T0: 08:00 h), after 1 h after of isolation (T1) and after restraint and shearing, around an average of 5 min (T2). All samples were taken in quiet conditions by the same operator. Serum ACTH concentrations were assayed by a commercial radioimmunoassay (RIA). Serum cortisol concentrations were assayed by amplified Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA). Two-way RM ANOVA showed a significant effect of husbandry procedures on ACTH changes, with higher ACTH and cortisol concentrations of just shorn than intact males (F = 15.76;  P < 0.0001) and females (F = 17.34; P < 0.0005), and on cortisol changes, with higher cortisol concentrations of just shorn than intact males (F = 6.54; P < 0.01) and females (F = 22.66; P < 0.0001).Discussion: The highest ACTH and cortisol values after isolation, with an appreciable increase especially after restraint and shearing in just shorn sheep, showed that the previous shearing exposure could not induce a habituation to the stimulus, probably promoting a larger release of ACTH and cortisol hormones, so inducing an early and marked coping response to stress in just shorn specimens. Thus, it would appear that different ACTH and cortisol responses of sheep with or without previous shearing experience over the study period resulted in some significant differences when exposed to isolation, restraint and shearing, probably due to changes in pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Nevertheless, it is possible  to interpret the increase in ACTH and cortisol concentrations related to intrinsic endocrine control mechanisms as an increase due to a rise in the stressful stimulus or coping response. The magnitude of ACTH and cortisol changes following isolation, restraint and shearing suggests that measurements of both hormones are useful in assessing husbandry procedures stress in sheep, with marked elevations in just shorn sheep, indicating that experience can induce an early much larger coping response to stressful practice of shearing