Teaching in real time : a pedagogical analysis of the dynamic structuring of interactive subject matter discourse in the classrooms of student teachers on teaching practice

It would be difficult to overstate the complexity of the task a student teacher undertakes when she assumes responsibility for teaching her subject to a class during teaching practice. Vet, while issues surrounding teaching practice - such as the attitudes of trainees and their socialization - have frequently been studied (Zeichner, 1986a; Wragg,1982; Al-Hidabi, 1986), it is only recently that the actual classroom teaching of student teachers has attracted much sustained research attention (see, for example, Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1986a, b, c; Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986; Bork & Livingstone, 1989). Consequently, little is known in detail about what students do, moment by moment, while engaging in the key practical component of their professional training. Considering that teaching practice - variously called the practicum, field experience, professional experience, teaching rounds, and so on - plays an essential part in all schemes of training (Collins, 1982), that training institutions in general have tended to increase the proportion of time devoted to school experience (Furlong, et al., 1988) and that students have frequently been found to view the practicum as the most valuable aspect of their course (Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Turney et al., 1985), the fact that the teaching of student teachers has been so little studied appears somewhat anomalous. This situation contrasts markedly with what is known about leaching in general from studies of experienced teachers. Research into the cognitive aspects of pedagogy has revealed something of the manifold complexities inherent in teaching. Thus the teacher may be viewed as a reflective professional who demonstrates 'knowledge-in- action' (Schon, 1983). Similar conceptions underlie perspectives which focus variously upon 'teacher decision making (Calderhead, 1980), 'teacher's craft knowledge' (McNamara & Desforges, 1978; Desforges & MacNamara,1979), or 'the knowledge base for teaching' (Shulman, 1986a, 1967). Drawing from such overlapping viewpoints, a composite picture of teaching emerges. Interacting with, say, thirty disparate individuals, who comprise the pupils in her care, the teacher engages in activities designed to illuminate her subject (Shulman, 1990). Her action is based on rapid and intricate discriminations among a multiplicity of overlapping events which often pass with bewildering speed (Doyle, 1986). She must simultaneously manage both the social order in the classroom and the development of academic work, and, where there is conflict between these twin goals, the former concern often seems to be accorded priority (Carter & Doyle, 1987). Thus the teacher's action seems designed to ensure that orderly states of activity are initiated and sustained (Brown & McIntyre,1989). An additional aspect of the teacher's action, which pervades the classroom, is the way she improvises pedagogical language, in an interactive setting, in an attempt to disclose subject matter knowledge (Erickson, 1982). The teacher also possesses an awareness of the differential abilities of pupils in the class and seeks to involve them in appropriate ways (Calderhead, 1980). Yet all her pedagogical action may be orchestrated into a seamless performance of such skill that its intricacy can easily be overlooked by an observer (McNamara, 1980). Thus it would appear that if teaching practice is conceived as an opportunity for learning through attempting to emulate what experienced teachers do, the student faces a central difficulty: much of the professional activity teachers engage in is not directly observable (Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1986a, b, c). The student teacher may view the overt actions of a co-operating teacher, but she is not privy to the professional discriminations which inform these actions. Nor have teachers, in common with other professionals, been found to be naturally able to be explicit about their expertise in this regard (Berliner, 1986; McIntyre et el., 1988). And the student suffers still other disadvantages. Salient among these is the fact that she has to teach pupils she is barely acquainted with. Thus she does not possess the knowledge of the class, built up over many dozens of hours of interaction, that the co-operating teacher has, and so is likely to be hesitant in interpreting pupil behaviour. Nor does she have the store of knowledge, built up from years of exposure to other pupils and classes, that the experienced teacher may fall back on when she encounters a new class (Wragg & Wood, 1984). Similarly, while she may be enthused by her subject, she does not have the pedagogical knowledge of the subject matter that the experienced teacher will have accumulated (Shulman,1987). For instance, she is unlikely to know accurately what may be expected of pupils of different ages and abilities. Nor will she be keenly aware of the common misunderstandings that may need to be guarded against when she introduces pupils to a particular topic. Neither will she possess a store of useful analogies for explaining certain concepts, and so on (see, Shulman, 1986a, 1990; Wilson, et al. 1986)

An intensive study of an acid soil: a comparison of the different methods for estimating the "lime requirement" and the degree of saturation of soils

The chief objects of the investigation were (1) to compare the "lime requirements" of certain acid soils as determined by methods in use in various countries and to compare the effects of adding lime in tha laboratory aad in the field (2) to compare the results obtained by the various methods which have been proposed for the determination of the saturation value of the soil and (3) to determine the amount of Calcium absorbed in the field, its effect on the other bases of the soil and on the crop yield.For this purpose 10 plots were laid down, 5 in duplicate, the soils all containing practically the same amount of clay 22 - 25'3, but varying amounts of organic matter 10 - 21f. .. short discussion on the methods of estimating organic matter is given, the method used being that of Robinson's, i.e. reduction of sulphuric acid to sulphur dioxide by the carbon of the organic matter and estimation of the sulphur dioxide evolved. The results agree well with the "loss on ignition" and the method would appear to be very useful in routine work. The total nitrogen was also estimated, but no definite ratio could be established between the carbon and the nitrogen - the ratio carbon to nitrogen varied between 13 and 17 - or between the nitrogen and the organic matter.The pH of the plots in water solution varied between 4.5 and 5 and between 3.7 and 4.2 in N Kc1 solution, i.e. they were highly acidic.The various methods used in determining the "lime requirements" were (1)Christensen- Jensen - lime rexuired to give pH 7 found by titration with Ca(OH)2. The buffer power of the soils calculated according to his method is given. (2) Kappen's - Lime required to remove the "hydrolytic acidity" found by shaking soil with calcium acetate or sodium acetate and titration of filtrate with sodium hydroxide. More acidity was liberated by treatment with calcium than -,vith sodium acetate.(3) Daikahura's - Lime required to remove "exchange acidity" found by shaking soil with normal potassium chloride and titration of filtrate with standard sodium hydroxide. (Kappen's type3 of acidity : "Ijydrolytic Acidity ", ",,Xchange Acidity ", "Neutral Salt Decomposition ", and "Active Lcidity" and also Page's theory that these are not different types, but are all of one kind differing only in degree are discussed. The various phenomena can be explained by assuming greater amounts of replaceable hydrogen present in the soil complex as the acidity increases).Hutchison and McLennan - Lime requirement by determining the amount of calcium absorbed by soil from a solution of calcium bicarbonate. The errors of the method pointed out by various observers are given.The results show that most lime is required to give pH 7, the hydrolytic acidity method less, Hutchison- licLennan still less, and least of all by exchange acidity method. It is pointed out that pH 7 is perhaps unnecessarily high for many crops so thatAamount of lime could be decreased. It was also found that time taken for suspension of soil and calcium hydroxide to reach e,uilibrium was longer than 48 hrs., 96 hours and 120 hours being necessary in some cases. This makes the method too long for routine use. The exchange acidity methods give amounts of lime which are tm low for practical purposes.The Hutchison -McLennan and Kappen's method give results which appear to be suitable. Kappen's method would be useful in practice as being .,uicker than Hutchison- McLennan, but the amount of soil used 100 gms. could be decreased and 200 c.cs. solution taken

Like Nobody's Business

"How do university finances really work? From flagship public research universities to small, private liberal arts colleges, there are few aspects of these institutions associated with more confusion, myths or lack of understanding than how they fund themselves and function in the business of higher education. Using simple, approachable explanations supported by clear illustrations, this book takes the reader on an engaging and enlightening tour of how the money flows. How does the university really pay for itself? Why do tuition and fees rise so fast? Why do universities lose money on research? Do most donations go to athletics? Grounded in hard data, original analyses, and the practical experience of a seasoned administrator, this book provides refreshingly clear answers and comprehensive insights for anyone on or off campus who is interested in the business of the university: how it earns its money, how it spends it, and how it all works.

Growth, Structure and Prediction of the Thermal Internal Boundary Layer

The Thermal internal Boundary Layer (TIBL) is a dynamic and turbulent mesoscale feature of the coastal atmosphere that forms over the land during conditions of onshore flow. The TIBL develops as an adjustment of the atmospheric boundary layer to the discontinuities of temperature and roughness that occur at the interface between the underlying marine and terrestrial surfaces. The resulting formation of a characteristically convex mixed layer below relatively stable air aloft has serious implications for the dispersion of pollutants in shoreline environments. Although a wide range of research relating to various features of the TIBL may be found in the literature, relatively few broadly-based studies have been performed. This study has employed both airborne and surface measurements to obtain a comprehensive spatial and temporal data set, in order to elucidate aspects of the characteristic structure and behaviour of the TIBL. TIBL growth was found to follow a diurnal pattern, the initially irregular boundary becoming more uniform during the day as a steady balance between various factors was achieved. The TIBL was associated with a layer of uniform wind speed anti direction flowing perpendicular to the coastline, within which warmer temperatures and changes in relative humidity and moisture content were observed. The temperature structure of the onshore flow strongly influenced the intensity of turbulence encountered in the TIBL and the degree of entrainment aloft. Patterns of turbulent properties displayed significant increases in the TIBL, which were relatively abrupt near the surface and more gradual towards the top of the TIBL. Measurements of sensible heat flux revealed strong undulations in TIBL structure due to transitory eddies and thermal upcurrents. Certain theoretically based predictive equations of TIBL height displayed the best overall performance out of eight selected models, and some promise was shown by an empirical formulation. TIBL development was generally complex and irregular within the first few kilometres of the shore, while further inland more regular TIBL formation enabled the relatively accurate observation and prediction of TIBL height

Research into a method of crew scheduling for suburban rail transport using heuristic and linear programming techniques

Crew schedules on the South African Transport Services are done by roster compilers at depots. A method that uses heuristic and mathematical programming algorithms was developed to replace existing hand methods. It is a two stage method that will use a microcomputer to assist roster compilers to draw up crew schedules. Initially timetables are subdivided into shifts and then they are combined into crew schedules. The solution, which produces a significant improvement compared with an existing crew schedule and an existing method, has been accepted in principle and computer programming has begun. In Appendix E another heuristic for the scheduling of league matches is described

Embedding and sustaining change in technology-enhanced education : lessons learned from a cross-institutional transformation project

Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the work of Liz Foulis of Lauder (now Carnegie) College and Julie McCran from Edinburgh’s Telford College for the contribution they made as members of the core project team. We are also indebted to Heather Sanderson, the project manager, Dr Peter Easy who chaired the project steering group, and to other members of the project management team (Isabel Craig, Pascale Gay, Fred Percival and our administrator Anne Wardrope). Roger Rist and Laurence Patterson comprised the project’s evaluation team, while David Griggs produced the video case studies. TESEP was funded through a two-year grant from the Scottish Funding Council to Edinburgh Napier University in partnership with Edinburgh’s Telford College and Lauder College, Dunfermline.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Climate Factors Influencing Coccidioidomycosis Seasonality and Outbreaks

Although broad links between climatic factors and coccidioidomycosis have been established, the identification of simple and robust relationships linking climatic controls to seasonal timing and outbreaks of the disease has remained elusive. Using an adaptive data-oriented method for estimating date of exposure, in this article I analyze hypotheses linking climate and dust to fungal growth and dispersion, and evaluate their respective roles for Pima County, Arizona. Results confirm a strong bimodal disease seasonality that was suspected but not previously seen in reported data. Dispersion-related conditions are important predictors of coccidioidomycosis incidence during fall, winter, and the arid foresummer. However, precipitation during the normally arid foresummer 1.5–2 years before the season of exposure is the dominant predictor of the disease in all seasons, accounting for half of the overall variance. Cross-validated models combining antecedent and concurrent conditions explain 80% of the variance in coccidioidomycosis incidence

Assessing climate and health curriculum in graduate public health education in the United States

Climate change has been identified as both a challenge and an opportunity for public health. The onus to prepare the next generation of public health practitioners lies heavily on schools and programs of public health. This article (i) assesses the status of climate change and health curricula in accredited schools of public health in the United States and (ii) proposes strategies to better train professionals so they are more informed and prepared to mitigate, manage, and respond to the health impacts of climate change. Course offerings and syllabi listed in online course catalogs from 90 nationally accredited schools of public health were evaluated with the purpose of identifying the extent of climate change education in graduate programs. Only 44 public health institutions were found to offer a climate change related course at the graduate level of education. Of the 103 courses identified, approximately 50% (n = 46) are focused on this climate change and health. These courses cover a wide array of topics with an emphasis on conveying fundamental concepts. In-depth assessment revealed a need for integrating learning opportunities that build practical skills useful in a hands-on public health practice environment. This assessment indicates the limited availability of climate-health course offerings available to graduate students in accredited schools. The findings are used to propose an educational framework to integrate climate change into public health curricula. The proposed framework, while rooted in existing directives, adopts a tiered approach that can be readily applied by institutions training the next generation of public health leaders

Coccidioidomycosis Incidence in Arizona Predicted by Seasonal Precipitation

The environmental mechanisms that determine the inter-annual and seasonal variability in incidence of coccidioidomycosis are unclear. In this study, we use Arizona coccidioidomycosis case data for 1995–2006 to generate a timeseries of monthly estimates of exposure rates in Maricopa County, AZ and Pima County, AZ. We reveal a seasonal autocorrelation structure for exposure rates in both Maricopa County and Pima County which indicates that exposure rates are strongly related from the fall to the spring. An abrupt end to this autocorrelation relationship occurs near the the onset of the summer precipitation season and increasing exposure rates related to the subsequent season. The identification of the autocorrelation structure enabled us to construct a “primary” exposure season that spans August-March and a “secondary” season that spans April–June which are then used in subsequent analyses. We show that October–December precipitation is positively associated with rates of exposure for the primary exposure season in both Maricopa County (R = 0.72, p = 0.012) and Pima County (R = 0.69, p = 0.019). In addition, exposure rates during the primary exposure seasons are negatively associated with concurrent precipitation in Maricopa (R = −0.79, p = 0.004) and Pima (R = −0.64, p = 0.019), possibly due to reduced spore dispersion. These associations enabled the generation of models to estimate exposure rates for the primary exposure season. The models explain 69% (p = 0.009) and 54% (p = 0.045) of the variance in the study period for Maricopa and Pima counties, respectively. We did not find any significant predictors for exposure rates during the secondary season. This study builds on previous studies examining the causes of temporal fluctuations in coccidioidomycosis, and corroborates the “grow and blow” hypothesis

RISK MANAGEMENT FOR CHIROPRACTORS AND OSTEOPATHS: Imaging Guidelines for Conditions Commonly Seen in Practice

This article is the second in a series of articles dealing with risk management in the practise of chiropractic and osteopathy, prepared by the COCA Risk Management Subcommittee