9 research outputs found
Spatial consistency and bias in avalanche forecasts – a case study in the European Alps
In the European Alps, the public is provided with regional avalanche
forecasts, issued by about 30 forecast centers throughout the winter,
covering a spatially contiguous area. A key element in these forecasts is the
communication of avalanche danger according to the five-level, ordinal
European Avalanche Danger Scale (EADS). Consistency in the application of the
avalanche danger levels by the individual forecast centers is essential to
avoid misunderstandings or misinterpretations by users, particularly those
utilizing bulletins issued by different forecast centers. As the quality of
avalanche forecasts is difficult to verify, due to the categorical nature of
the EADS, we investigated forecast goodness by focusing on spatial
consistency and bias, exploring real forecast danger levels from four winter
seasons (477 forecast days). We describe the operational constraints
associated with the production and communication of the avalanche bulletins,
and we propose a methodology to quantitatively explore spatial consistency
and bias. We note that the forecast danger level agreed significantly less
often when compared across national and forecast center boundaries (about
60 %) than within forecast center boundaries (about 90 %).
Furthermore, several forecast centers showed significant systematic
differences in terms of more frequently using lower (or higher) danger levels
than their neighbors. Discrepancies seemed to be greatest when analyzing the
proportion of forecasts with danger level 4 – high and 5 – very high. The
size of the warning regions, the smallest geographically clearly specified
areas underlying the forecast products, differed considerably between
forecast centers. Region size also had a significant impact on all summary
statistics and is a key parameter influencing the issued danger level, but it
also limits the communication of spatial variations in the danger level.
Operational constraints in the production and communication of avalanche
forecasts and variation in the ways the EADS is interpreted locally may
contribute to inconsistencies and may be potential sources for
misinterpretation by forecast users. All these issues highlight the need to
further harmonize the forecast production process and the way avalanche
hazard is communicated to increase consistency and hence facilitate
cross-border forecast interpretation by traveling users.</p
Computation of 3D curvatures on a wet snow sample
The map of 3D curvatures of a porous medium characterizes most of its
capillary properties. A model for directly computing curvatures from a
three-dimensional image of the solid matrix of a porous medium is presented. A
precise distance map of the object is built using the “chamfer” distance of discrete
geometry. The set of local maxima of the distance map is used for quick location of
the normal to each point P of the object's surface. The normal being known,
principal radii of curvature are computed in 2D and lead to 3D curvature. This model
was validated on geometric shapes of known curvature, then applied on a natural snow
sample. The snow image was obtained from a serial cut (performed in cold laboratory)
observed under specularly reflected light. Views of both fresh and sublimated sections
were taken for each of the 64 section planes: this allowed easier distinction between
snow and filling medium and made possible automatic contouring of section plane
images. Curvature maps computed from pore and grain phases respectively were found to
be in excellent agreement for each tested object shape, including the snow sample
Measurements of pore-scale water flow through snow using fluorescent particle velocimetry
Fluorescent Particle Tracking Velocimetry (FPTV) measurements of the pore-scale
water flow through the pore space of a wet-snow sample are presented to demonstrate the
applicability of this measurement technique for snow. For the experiments, ice-cooled water
seeded with micron sized fluorescent tracer particles is either sprinkled on top of a snow
sample to investigate saturated and unsaturated gravity-driven flow or supplied from a
reservoir below the snow sample to generate upward flow driven by capillary forces. The
snow sample is illuminated with a laser light sheet and the fluorescent light of the particles
transported with the water in the pore space is recorded with a high-speed camera equipped
with an optical filter. Tracking algorithms are applied to the images to obtain flow paths and
flow velocities. A flow loop found in a pore space for the case of saturated gravity flow
together with the tortuosity of the particle trajectories indicate the three-dimensionality of
the water flow in wet snow. The average vertical flow velocities in the pore spaces were
11.2 mm s1 for the downward saturated gravity flow and 9.6 mm s1 for the upward flow
that is driven by capillary forces for the limited cases presented as examples of the
measurement technique. In the case of unsaturated gravity-driven flow, the average and the
maximum flow velocities were found to be 30 times smaller than for the saturated gravity
flow. Velocity histograms show that the fraction of the total water flowing against the main
flow direction was about 3–5%, and that the horizontal velocities average to zero for both
the saturated gravity-driven and the capillary flow