Enzymatic and Molecular Identification of Meloidogyne Species in Tomato Orchards in Paraguay

Tomato is a major crop in Paraguay, where it provides a source of employment and income for households. Tomato production can be affected by root-knot nematodes, especially Meloidogyne spp. The unequivocal identification of Meloidogyne spp. in Paraguay has not been conducted yet. This study aims to identify Meloidogyne species in eight tomato production districts of this country by biochemical and molecular techniques. Females of Meloidogyne spp. were extracted from tomato roots and characterized using esterase isozyme phenotypes. In addition, DNA was extracted from nematode eggs, and species-specific SCARs (sequence-characterized amplified regions) were used to confirm the diagnosis. Nematodes were detected in 100% of studied samples (prevalence), of which M. incognita (Est: I2, Rm: 1.1;1.2) and M. javanica (Est: J3, Rm: 1.0, 1.20, 1.35) were present in 39.13% and 26.08% of samples, respectively. One population (8.69%) of Meloidogyne sp. presenting an atypical esterase profile (Rm: 1.0 and 1.3) was only detected in Julián Augusto Saldívar District. Mixed populations, mostly M. incognita and M. javanica, were observed in 26.08% of samples. The SCAR primers incK14F/incK14R amplified specific fragments for M. incognita (399 bp) and M. javanica (670 bp), confirming the enzymatic results. Here, we present the first study of root-knot nematode identification at the species level in Paraguay

Effectiveness of Thrombectomy in Stroke According to Baseline Prognostic Factors: Inverse Probability of Treatment Weighting Analysis of a Population-Based Registry

Background and Purpose In real-world practice, the benefit of mechanical thrombectomy (MT) is uncertain in stroke patients with very favorable or poor prognostic profiles at baseline. We studied the effectiveness of MT versus medical treatment stratifying by different baseline prognostic factors. Methods Retrospective analysis of 2,588 patients with an ischemic stroke due to large vessel occlusion nested in the population-based registry of stroke code activations in Catalonia from January 2017 to June 2019. The effect of MT on good functional outcome (modified Rankin Score 85 years, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale [NIHSS] >25, time from onset >6 hours, Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score 3), good (if NIHSS <6 or distal occlusion, in the absence of poor prognostic factors), or reference (not meeting other groups' criteria). Results Patients receiving MT (n=1,996, 77%) were younger, had less pre-stroke disability, and received systemic thrombolysis less frequently. These differences were balanced after the IPTW stratified by prognosis. MT was associated with good functional outcome in the reference (odds ratio [OR], 2.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.0 to 4.4), and especially in the poor baseline prognostic stratum (OR, 3.9; 95% CI, 2.6 to 5.9), but not in the good prognostic stratum. MT was associated with survival only in the poor prognostic stratum (OR, 2.6; 95% CI, 2.0 to 3.3). Conclusions Despite their worse overall outcomes, the impact of thrombectomy over medical management was more substantial in patients with poorer baseline prognostic factors than patients with good prognostic factors

Informe de Política Monetaria - Octubre 2020

Recent data suggest that the technical staff’s appraisals of the condition and development of economic activity, inflation and the labor market have been in line with current trends, marked by a decline in demand and the persistence of ample excess productive capacity. A significant projected fall in output materialized in the second quarter, contributing to a decline in inflation below the 3% target and reflected in a significant deterioration of the labor market. A slow recovery in output and employment is expected to continue for the remainder of 2020 and into next year, alongside growing inflation that should remain below the target. The Colombian economy is likely to undergo a significant recession in 2020 (GDP contraction of 7.6%), though this may be less severe than projected in the previous report (-8.5%). Output is expected to have begun a slow recovery in the second half of this year, though it is not projected to return to pre-pandemic levels in 2021 amid significant global uncertainty. The output decline in the first half of 2020 was less severe than anticipated, thanks to an upward revision in first-quarter GDP and a smaller contraction in the second quarter (-15.5%) than had been projected (-16.5%). Available economic indicators suggest an annual decline in GDP in the third quarter of around 9%. No significant acceleration of COVID-19 cases that would imply a tightening of social distancing measures is presumed for the remainder of this year or in 2021. In that context, a gradual opening of the economy would be expected to continue, with supply in sectors that have been most affected by the pandemic recovering slowly as restrictions on economic activity continue to be relaxed. On the spending side, an improvement in consumer confidence, suppressed demand for goods and services, low interest rates, and higher expected levels of foreign demand should contribute to a recovery in output. A low base of comparison would also help explain the expected increase in GDP in 2021. Based on the conditions laid out above, economic growth in 2020 is expected to be between -9% and -6.5%, with a central value of -7.6%. Growth in 2021 is projected to be between 3% and 7%, with a central value of 4.6% (Graph 1.1). Upward revisions compared to the July report take into account a lower-than-expected fall in first-semester growth and a somewhat faster recovery in the third quarter in some sectors. The forecast intervals for 2020 and 2021 growth tightened somewhat but continue to reflect a high degree of uncertainty over theevolution of the pandemic, the easures required to deal with it, and their effects on global and domestic economic activity.Box 1. Evaluation of the Predictive Capacity of Expected Inflation Measures. Authors: César Anzola-Bravo, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Alexander Guarín-López, Julián Camilo Mateus-Gamboa, Jonathan Alexander Muñoz-Martínez, Carlos Andrés Quicazán-Moreno, Juan Sebastián Rojas-Moreno, Cristhian Hernando Ruiz-CardozoBox 2. Literature Review: Weighing the Drivers of Portfolio Flows to Emerging Market Economies. Authors: Andrés Sánchez-Jabb

Monetary Policy Report - January 2021

Macroeconomic Summary Overall inflation (1.61%) and core inflation (excluding food and regulated items) (1.11%) both declined beyond the technical staff’s expectations in the fourth quarter of 2020. Year-end 2021 forecasts for both indicators were revised downward to 2.3% and 2.1%, respectively. Market inflation expectations also fell over this period and suggested inflation below the 3% target through the end of this year, rising to the target in 2022. Downward pressure on inflation was more significant in the fourth quarter than previously projected, indicating weak demand. Annual deceleration among the main groups of the consumer price index (CPI) was generalized and, except for foods, was greater than projected in the October report. The CPI for goods (excluding foods and regulated items) and the CPI for regulated items were subject to the largest decelerations and forecasting discrepancies. In the first case, this was due in part to a greater-than-expected effect on prices from the government’s “VAT-fee day” amid weak demand, and from the extension of some price relief measures. For regulated items, the deceleration was caused in part by unanticipated declines in some utility prices. Annual change in the CPI for services continued to decline as a result of the performance of those services that were not subject to price relief measures, in particular. Although some of the overall decline in inflation is expected to be temporary and reverse course in the second quarter of 2021, various sources of downward pressure on inflation have become more acute and will likely remain into next year. These include ample excesses in capacity, as suggested by the continued and greater-than-expected deceleration in core inflation indicators and in the CPI for services excluding price relief measures. This dynamic is also suggested by the minimal transmission of accumulated depreciation of the peso on domestic prices. Although excess capacity should fall in 2021, the decline will likely be slower than projected in the October report amid additional restrictions on mobility due to a recent acceleration of growth in COVID-19 cases. An additional factor is that low inflation registered at the end of 2020 will likely be reflected in low price adjustments on certain indexed services with significant weight in the CPI, including real estate rentals and some utilities. These factors should keep inflation below the target and lower than estimates from the previous report on the forecast horizon. Inflation is expected to continue to decline to levels near 1% in March, later increasing to 2.3% at the end of 2021 and 2.7% at year-end 2022 (Graph 1.1). According to the Bank’s most recent survey, market analysts expect inflation of 2.7% and 3.1% in December 2021 and 2022, respectively. Expected inflation derived from government bonds was 2% for year-end 2021, while expected inflation based on bonds one year forward from that date (FBEI 1-1 2022) was 3.2%.Box I. Macroeconomic Expectations: Analysis of the Monthly Survey of Economic Analyst Expectations. Authors: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales, César Anzola, Jonathan Muño

Monetary Policy Report - April de 2021

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.Box 1. The Transmission of Changes in the Monetary Policy Interest Rate (MPR) to Credit Institutions’ Interest Rates (CI). Authors: Isleny Carranza Amortegui, Deicy Cristiano Botia, Eliana González Molano, Carlos Huertas CamposBox 2. Analysis of Macroeconomic Expectations implicit in Financial Market Instruments. Authors: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Jonathan Muño

Monetary Policy Report - July de 2021

Macroeconomic summary The Colombian economy sustained numerous shocks in the second quarter, pri¬marily related to costs and supply. The majority of these shocks were unantic¬ipated or proved more persistent than expected, interrupting the recovery in economic activity observed at the beginning of the year and pushing overall inflation above the target. Core inflation (excluding food and regulated items) increased but remained low, in line with the technical staff’s expectations. A third wave of the pandemic, which became more severe and prolonged than the previous outbreak, began in early April. This had both a high cost in terms of human life and a negative impact on Colombia's economic recovery. Between May and mid-June roadblocks and other disruptions to public order had a sig¬nificant negative effect on economic activity and inflation. The combination and magnitude of these two shocks likely led to a decline in gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the first quarter. Roadblocks also led to a significant in¬crease in food prices. The accumulated effects of global disruptions to certain value chains and increased international freight transportation prices, which since the end of 2020 have restricted supply and increased costs, also affected Colombia’s economy. The factors described above, which primarily affected the consumer price index (CPI) for goods and foods, explain to a significant degree the technical staff’s forecast errors and the increase in overall inflation above the 3% target. By contrast, increases in core inflation and in prices for regulated items were in line with the technical staff’s expectations, and can be explained largely by the elimination of various price relief measures put in place last year. An increase in perceived sovereign risk and the upward pressures that this im¬plies on international financing costs and the exchange rate were further con¬siderations. Despite significant negative shocks, economic growth in the first half of the year (9.1%) is now expected to be significantly higher than projected in the April re¬port (7.1%), a sign of a more dynamic economy that could recover more quickly than previously forecast. Diverse economic activity figures have indicated high¬er-than-expected growth since the end of 2020. This suggests that the negative effects on output from recurring waves of COVID-19 have grown weaker and less long-lasting with subsequent outbreaks. Nevertheless, the third wave of the coro¬navirus, and to an even greater degree the previously mentioned roadblocks and disruptions to public order, likely led to a decline in GDP in the second quar¬ter compared to the first. Despite this, data from the monthly economic tracking indicator (ISE) for April and May surpassed expectations, and new sector-level measures of economic activity suggest that the negative impact of the pandemic on output continues to moderate, amid reduced restrictions on mobility and im¬provements in the pace of vaccination programs. Freight transportation registers (June) and unregulated energy demand (July), among other indicators, suggest a significant recovery following the roadblocks in May. Given the above, annual GDP growth in the second quarter is expected to have been around 17.3% (previously 15.8%), explained in large part by a low basis of comparison. The technical staff revised its growth projection for 2021 upward from 6% to 7.5%. This forecast, which comes with an unusually high degree of uncertain¬ty, assumes no additional disruptions to public order and that any new waves of COVID-19 will not have significant additional negative effects on economic activity. Recovery in international demand, price levels for some of Colombia’s export com¬modities, and remittances from workers abroad have all performed better than projected in the previous report. This dynamic is expected to continue to drive recovery in the national income over the rest of the year. Continued ample international liquidity, an acceleration in vacci¬nation programs, and low interest rates can also be ex¬pected to favor economic activity. Improved performance in the second quarter, which led to an upward growth revision for all components of spending, is expected to continue, with the economy returning to 2019 production levels at the end of 2021, earlier than estimated in the April report. This forecast continues to account for the short-term effects on aggregate demand of a tax reform package along the lines of what is currently being pro-posed by the national government. Given the above, the central forecast scenario in this report projects growth in 2021 of 7.5% and in 2022 of 3.1% (Graph 1.1). In this scenar¬io, economic activity would nonetheless remain below potential. The noted improvement in these projections comes with a high degree of uncertainty. Annual inflation increased more than expected in June (3.63%) as a result of changes in food prices, while growth in core inflation (1.87%) was similar to projections. The in¬creased CPI for foods would be expected to persist for the remainder of the year, contributing to inflation remaining above the target. Overall and core inflation would be ex¬pected to return to close to 3% at the end of 2022, amid a deceleration in growth in the CPI for foods and reduced ex¬cess productive capacity. Recent increases in international freight and agricultural goods prices, as well as the live¬stock cycle and increased meat exports, have exerted up¬ward pressure on food prices, primarily in processed foods (see Box 21). In addition to these persistent factors affecting prices, national roadblocks and related disruptions to pub¬lic order in several cities throughout May and parts of June were reflected in a significant restriction of supply and an unexpected annual increase in the CPI for foods (8.52%). Inflation in regulated items (5.93%) also accelerated, due to a low basis of comparison on gasoline prices and the par¬tial lapse of relief measures on utility rates that were put in place in 2020. Inflation excluding food and regulated items recovered in line with projections to 1.87%, due to the rein¬statement of indirect taxes on certain goods and services that had been temporarily eliminated in 2020, and to up¬ward pressures exerted by prices for foods away from home (FAH), among other factors. The increase in perishable foods prices is expected to be reversed over the course of the year, assuming an absence of additional, long-lasting blockades of national roads. Increased processed food pric¬es would be expected to persist and contribute to keeping inflation above the target at the end of the year. Inflation excluding foods and regulated items is expected to contin¬ue to exhibit an upward trend, as excesses in productive ca¬pacity continue to close, and register a temporary increase in March 2022 largely due to the reinstatement of the FAH consumption tax. Given the above, overall year-end infla¬tion is expected to be 4.1% in 2021 and 3.1% in 2022 (Graph 1.2), and core inflation is expected to be 2.6% in 2021 and 3.2% in 2022 (Graph 1.3). The technical staff has interpreted the overall behavior of prices in the CPI excluding food and regulated items, alongside continued unexpected increases in economic activity, as signs of more ample excess productive capaci¬ty in the economy. This would be expected to persist over the next two years, with the output gap closing at the end of that period. Increased economic growth suggests a less negative output gap than estimated last quarter. Nevertheless, the behavior of core inflation, especially in services, suggests that potential GDP has recovered to an unanticipated degree and that ample excess capacity con¬tinues, with a persistent effect on aggregate demand. La¬bor market observation supports this interpretation, with persistent high levels of unemployment and stagnation in the recovery of jobs lost as a result of the pandemic. Increased inflation can be explained largely by shocks re¬lated to costs and supply, and by the dissolution of some price relief measures put in place in 2020. The growth and inflation forecasts described above would be consistent with a less negative output gap closing more quickly across the forecast horizon compared to the projection from the April report. Nevertheless, uncertainty surrounding excess capacity is very high and constitutes a risk to the forecast (Graphic 1.4). The fiscal accounts outlook deteriorated, Standard and Poor’s Global Ratings (S&P) and Fitch Ratings (Fitch) down¬graded Colombia’s credit rating, roadblocks and disrup¬tions to public order affected output, and the country faced a third wave of COVID-19 that was more severe and prolonged than the previous outbreak. These factors were reflected in an increased risk premium and depreciation of the peso compared to the dollar. This occurred in a favor¬able context in regard to foreign income, as international prices for oil, coffee, and other Colombian export goods in¬creased. This contributed to a recovery in the terms of trade and in the national income and mitigated upward pres¬sures on the risk premium and the exchange rate. Expected oil prices in this report are USD 68 per barrel (previous¬ly USD 61/bl) for 2021 and USD 66/bl (previously USD 60/ bl) for 2022. This increased trajectory shows convergence to oil prices below recently observed levels, as a result of increased global supply that would more than offset increased demand. As a result, the recent price increase is expected to be temporary. International financial conditions are expected to become somewhat less fa¬vorable in the current macroeconomic context, despite the improvement in foreign income due to increased demand and some higher prices for oil and other export products. Growth in foreign demand was better than expected in the previous report, with projections for 2021 and 2022 increasing from 5.2% to 6.0% and from 3.4% to 3.5%, respectively. For the year to date, figures for economic activity suggest more dynamic foreign demand than previously expected. Output recovery has been faster in the United States and China than in Latin America, as economic reactivation in the latter has been limit¬ed by outbreaks of COVID-19, restricted vaccine supplies, and a lack of fiscal space to confront the pandemic, among other factors. The positive dynamic in foreign goods trade has come amid a deterioration in value chains and a significant increase in commodities and freight prices (see Box 3). Inflation in the United States has been unexpectedly high, with observed and expected values remaining above the target, while growth forecasts have been revised upward. As a result, the beginning of a normalization in monetary policy in the U.S. could come earlier than previously projected. This report estimates that the U.S. Federal Reserve’s first rate increase will come at the end of 2022 (before the first quarter of 2023). Colombia’s risk premium is projected to be higher than forecast in the April report, and is expected to remain on a growth trajectory given the country’s accumulation of public and external debt. This would be expected to contribute to an increase in international financing costs on the forecast horizon. An expansionary monetary policy stance continues to support favorable do¬mestic financing conditions. The interbank rate and the reference banking indi¬cator (IBR)remained consistent with the policy interest rate in the second quar¬ter. Average deposit and credit rates continued at historical lows, despite some observed increases at the end of June. The peso-denominated credit portfolio continued to decelerate in annual terms and, between March and June, growth in the household credit portfolio accelerated, primarily related to housing pur¬chases. Disbursements and recovery in the commercial credit portfolio were significant, returning to high levels observed one year ago, when businesses required significant levels of liquidity to confront the economic effects of the pandemic. Meanwhile, credit risk increased, liability provisions remained high, and some banks withdrew from the balance of their past-due portfolios. Nev¬ertheless, financial system earnings have recovered, and liquidity and solvency levels remain above regulatory minimums. Beginning with this report, a new methodology will be used to quantify and communicate the uncertainty surrounding central macroeconomic fore¬casts in the context of an active monetary policy. The new methodology, known as predictive densities (PD), will be explained in detail in Box 1. PD methodology provides probability distributions of the main forecast vari¬ables (e.g. growth, inflation) based on the balance of risks of key factors that, in the technical staff’s judgment, could affect the economy on the forecast horizon. These distributions reflect the result of possible shocks (to external variables, prices, and economic activity) that the economy could sustain and the transmission effects considering Colombia’s economic structure and anticipated monetary policy responses. As a result, PD allows for the quantification of uncertainty around the central forecast and of its bias. In this report, the PD exercise shows a downward bias for both economic growth and output gap, while the op¬posite is shown for headline inflation (Graphs 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). The balance of risks indicates more complex mone¬tary policy dilemmas than previously expected. The most significant anticipated risk regarding external financing would be a return to less favorable conditions in a sce¬nario in which the U.S. Federal Reserve promptly raises interest rates. Such a decision could come as the result of current levels of economic growth and higher-than-ex¬pected employment generating significant inflationary pressures on that country. Uncertainty regarding Colom¬bia’s fiscal outlook and the subsequent effects on the risk premium and external financing costs represent addi¬tional considerations. The risks to economic growth are mainly downside risks, relating especially to the effects of political and fiscal uncertainty on consumption and investment decisions and the potential for additional waves of COVID-19 and the subsequent effects on eco-nomic activity. Inflation risks take into account the po¬tential for more persistent shocks associated with dis¬ruption to value chains, higher international commodity and food prices, and a slower-than-expected recovery in the national agricultural chain as a result of the recent roadblocks. These would represent upward risks primarily to food and goods prices. The main downside risk to the inflation forecast would come from an increase in rental housing prices below the central scenario projection. This would be explained by weak demand and increased sup¬ply in 2022 as a result of high observed housing sales this year. All told, the PD exercise reveals a downward bias for economic growth forecast, with 90% probability of growth between 6.1% and 9.1% for 2021 and between 0.5% and 4.1% in 2022. The output gap also exhibits a downward bias to the central forecast scenario, primarily in 2022. On the contrary, an upward bias is expected for headline inflation forecast, with 90% probability ranging between 3.7% and 4.9% in 2021 and between 2.2% and 4.7% in 2022. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in June and July the BDBR left the bench¬mark interest rate unchanged at 1.75% (Graph 1.5).Box 1. Characterizing and Communicating the Balance of Risks of Macroeconomic Forecasts: A Predictive Densities Approach for Colombia Authors: Juan Camilo Méndez-Vizcaíno, César Ánzola-Bravo, Alexander Guarín y Anderson Grajales-OlarteBox 2. Analysis of Recent Disturbances in Global Logistics Chains and their Impact on Colombian Import Markets. Authors: Aarón Garavito, Juan Diego Cortés, Stefany Andrea Moreno, Alex Fernando Pérez y Juan Esteban CarranzaBox 3. The Upward Dynamics of Food Prices. Authors: Edgar Caicedo G., Andrea Salazar D. y Jesús Daniel Sarmiento S

Informe de Política Monetaria - Octubre de 2020

Los datos recientes de actividad económica, inflación y mercado laboral sugieren que sus tendencias han estado acorde con la valoración del equipo técnico sobre el estado de la economía y su evolución esperada, caracterizada por una caída en la demanda y la persistencia de amplios excesos de capacidad productiva. La fuerte caída proyectada del producto se materializó en el segundo trimestre, hecho que ha contribuido a un descenso de la inflación por debajo de la meta del 3% y se ha visto reflejado en un fuerte deterioro del mercado laboral. Para lo que resta del presente y durante el siguiente año se sigue esperando una lenta recuperación del producto y del empleo, junto con una inflación creciente, pero inferior a la meta. En 2020 la economía colombiana registraría una fuerte recesión (caída del PIB del 7,6%), menor que la proyectada en el informe pasado (caída del PIB del 8,5%). A partir del segundo semestre los niveles del producto se recuperarían de forma lenta, sin alcanzar en 2021 los valores previos a la pandemia, y en un entorno de amplia incertidumbre. La caída del producto del primer semestre del año resultó menor que la estimada, debido a la revisión al alza del PIB del primer trimestre y por una contracción en el segundo (-15,5%) más leve que la proyectada (-16,5%). Los indicadores disponibles de actividad económica sugieren que la caída anual del PIB para el tercer trimestre estaría alrededor del 9%. Para lo que resta del año y en 2021 se supone que no habrá una aceleración importante de los contagios del Covid-19 que impliquen un endurecimiento de las medidas de distanciamiento social que afecten de manera importante la actividad económica. Con esto, la apertura gradual de la economía continuaría y la oferta de los sectores más afectados por la pandemia se iría recuperando de forma lenta en la medida en que la flexibilización de las restricciones siga avanzando. Por el lado del gasto, la mejora en la confianza de los hogares, la demanda represada de varios bienes y servicios, los mayores niveles esperados de demanda externa y las bajas tasas reales de interés contribuirían a la recuperación del nivel del producto. A lo anterior se suma una base baja de comparación, que explicaría gran parte del aumento del PIB en 2021. Con todo esto, se espera que el crecimiento económico para 2020 se sitúe entre un -9% y -6,5%, con un -7,6% como valor central. Para 2021 se proyecta un crecimiento entre el 3% y 7%, con un 4,6% como valor central (Gráfico 1.1). Frente al informe de julio, la revisión al alza en las proyecciones de actividad económica incorpora la menor caída observada en el primer semestre y una recuperación algo más rápida que la esperada para el tercer trimestre en algunos sectores económicos. Los intervalos de pronóstico de crecimiento para 2020 y 2021 se redujeron, pero siguen siendo amplios y reflejan la elevada incertidumbre que se tiene sobre la evolución de la pandemia, las posibles medidas necesarias para enfrentarla y sus efectos sobre la actividad económica mundial y local.Recuadro 1. Evaluación de la capacidad predictiva de las expectativas de inflación. Autores: César Anzola-Bravo, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Alexander Guarín-López, Julián Camilo Mateus-Gamboa, Jonathan Alexander Muñoz-Martínez, Carlos Andrés Quicazán-Moreno, Juan Sebastián Rojas-Moreno, Cristhian Hernando Ruiz-CardozoRecuadro 2. Determinantes de los flujos de portafolio hacia economías emergentes: ¿qué dice la literatura?. Autores: Andrés Sánchez-Jabb

Informe de Política Monetaria - Enero de 2021

De acuerdo con el mandato constitucional, el Banco de la República debe “velar por mantener el poder adquisitivo de la moneda, en coordinación con la política económica general”. Para cumplir con este mandato, la Junta Directiva del Banco de la República (JDBR) adoptó como estrategia un esquema flexible de inflación objetivo, en el cual las acciones de política monetaria (PM) buscan conducir la inflación a una meta puntual y alcanzar el nivel máximo sostenible del producto y del empleo. La flexibilidad del esquema le permite a la JDBR mantener un balance apropiadoentre el logro de la meta de inflación y el propósito de suavizar las fluctuaciones del producto y el empleo alrededor de su senda sostenible. La JDBR estableció una meta de inflación del 3 %, planteada sobre la variación anual del índice de precios al consumidor (IPC). En el corto plazo la inflación puede ser afectada por factores que están fuera del control de la PM, como por ejemplo cambios en los precios de los alimentos debido a fenómenos climáticos. Para incorporar lo anterior, la JDBR anuncia, junto con la meta, un rango de ±1 punto porcentual (3 ±1 pp), el cual no es un objetivo de la PM, pero refleja el hecho de que la inflación puede fluctuar alrededor de la meta, sin pretender que sea siempre igual al 3 %. El principal instrumento que tiene la JDBR para el control de la inflación es la tasa de interés de política (tasa repo a un día o tasa de interés de referencia). Dado que las acciones de PM toman tiempo en tener un efecto completo sobre la economía y la inflación, para fijar su valor la JDBR evalúa el pronóstico y las expectativas de la inflación frente a la meta, así como el estado actual y las perspectivas sobre la evolución de la economía. La JDBR se reúne una vez al mes, pero solo en ocho meses sesiona de forma ordinaria para tomar decisiones de PM (enero, marzo, abril, junio, julio, septiembre, octubre y diciembre). En los cuatro meses restantes (febrero, mayo, agosto y noviembre) no se toman, en principio, decisiones de este tipo. Al finalizar las Juntas donde se toman decisiones de PM, se publica un comunicado y se hace una rueda de prensa a cargo del gerente general del Banco y el ministro de Hacienda. El siguiente día hábil se publican las minutas de la Junta, donde se describen las posturas que llevaron a adoptar la decisión. Adicionalmente, en enero, abril, julio y octubre se publica, junto con las minutas, el Informe de Política Monetaria (IPM) realizado por el equipo técnico del Banco: el miércoles de la semana siguiente a la Junta el gerente general aclara inquietudes sobre las minutas y el gerente técnico del Banco presenta el IPM. Este esquema de comunicación busca entregar información relevante y actualizada que contribuya a la toma de mejores decisiones por parte de los agentes de la economía.Recuadro 1. Expectativas macroeconómicas: análisis de la Encuesta mensual de expectativas de analistas económicos. Autores: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales, César Anzola, Jonathan Muño

Informe de Política Monetaria - Abril de 2021

Después de la profunda caída de la actividad económica en el segundo trimestre de 2020, la recuperación ha sido consistentemente más vigorosa que la pronosticada por el equipo técnico del Banco. Al tiempo, las tasas de inflación total y básica han caído y permanecen en niveles bajos. Este hecho sugiere que una parte importante de la reactivación económica se relaciona con la recuperación del producto interno bruto (PIB) potencial y soporta el diagnóstico de una demanda agregada débil y amplios excesos de capacidad. Los datos más recientes del crecimiento de 2020 mostraron que la contracción de la actividad económica del año fue del 6,8 %, menor que la estimada en el Informe de Política Monetaria de enero (-7,2 %). A pesar de las cuarentenas y restricciones a la movilidad de enero, los indicadores de alta frecuencia apuntan a una economía que en el primer trimestre habría sido sustancialmente más dinámica de lo esperado. Esta recuperación ha venido acompañada por caídas en la inflación total y básica. La reducción de esta última fue menor que la proyectada en enero, una vez se aíslan cambios en algunos precios relativos, lo cual sugiere que las sorpresas recientes de crecimiento tienen elementos de demanda y que los excesos de capacidad, si bien amplios, podrían ser inferiores a los previamente estimados. No obstante, la incertidumbre sobre la medición de los excesos de capacidad sigue siendo inusualmente alta y acentuada por la heterogeneidad en la afectación de diferentes sectores económicos y componentes del gasto, así como por el comportamiento dispar de los precios. El tamaño de los excesos de capacidad, y especialmente la evolución de la pandemia en los próximos trimestres, constituyen riesgos sustanciales sobre el pronóstico macroeconómico del presente informe. A pesar de la fortaleza inesperada de la recuperación de la economía, el equipo técnico sigue estimando amplios excesos de capacidad, los cuales se mantendrían en el horizonte de pronóstico, al tiempo con una inflación básica que continuaría por debajo de la meta. La demanda interna sigue en niveles inferiores a los de 2019, en un entorno en el que la incertidumbre sobre el tamaño de los excesos de capacidad de la economía continúa siendo inusualmente alta (Gráfico 1.1). A esto se suma una alta tasa de desempleo nacional (14,6 % para febrero de 2021), que refleja un mercado laboral holgado. Las tasas de inflación total y básica observadas continúan por debajo del 2 %. Se estima que las presiones inflacionarias provenientes de la tasa de cambio siguen siendo bajas, con un traspaso a la inflación que ha sido relativamente reducido, lo cual es compatible con una brecha de producto negativa. La presencia de excesos de capacidad productiva y la proyección de la inflación básica por debajo de la meta del 3 % en el horizonte de pronóstico justifican la postura expansiva de la política monetaria. La valoración sobre algunos choques y sus efectos, así como la presencia de ciertas fuentes de incertidumbre y los supuestos sobre sus impactos macroeconómicos, se mantienen presentes en este informe. En particular, el Covid-19 sigue afectando la salud pública, y la apertura de la economía es incompleta. El equipo técnico juzga que este choque afecta tanto la demanda como la oferta agregada, pero también que el impacto en la demanda es más profundo y persistente. Dada esta persistencia, el pronóstico central incorpora un cierre gradual de la brecha del producto en ausencia de nuevas olas de contagio a medida que avanza la vacunación. El pronóstico central sigue incluyendo la expectativa sobre un aumento de las tasas de inflación total y básica en el segundo trimestre de 2021, producto de la devolución de alivios de precios temporales que tuvieron lugar en 2020. La aparición de rebrotes de la infección (de intensidad y duración inciertas) es un factor de riesgo importante que puede alterar las anteriores proyecciones. Adicionalmente, el pronóstico continúa incluyendo una senda creciente de las primas de riesgo soberano, como reflejo del mayor nivel de endeudamiento público que se ha alcanzado después de la pandemia y que persistirá probablemente en el horizonte de la proyección, aun en presencia de un ajuste fiscal. Asimismo, se incorporan los impactos de corto plazo que un ajuste fiscal como el propuesto por el Gobierno tendría en la demanda interna privada, y que serían compatibles con una senda de recuperación gradual de la misma en 2022. Las características y la magnitud del ajuste fiscal, así como la correspondiente respuesta de los mercados, son una fuente de incertidumbre para el pronóstico. Sin embargo, la nueva información disponible presenta algunos elementos que, si bien no cambian el diagnóstico general descrito, podrían estar señalando cambios apreciables en el escenario macroeconómico. Los datos más recientes sobre inflación, crecimiento, política fiscal y contexto internacional apuntan hacia una economía más dinámica de lo previsto. En contraste, la materialización del tercer pico de la pandemia en Colombia implica un retraso en el proceso de apertura de la economía y una desaceleración de la actividad económica. A continuación se presenta una descripción de estos elementos y de los cambios en el pronóstico macroeconómico. La caída anual estimada del PIB (-0,3 %) para el primer trimestre de 2021 es menos acentuada que la proyectada en enero pasado (-4,8 %). Los cierres parciales registrados en enero para enfrentar la segunda ola de contagios del Covid-19 habrían tenido un impacto negativo en la economía menos fuerte que lo estimado. Así lo sugieren los indicadores de movilidad, de demanda de energía, de industria y ventas minoristas, de comercio exterior, las cifras de transacciones comerciales de algunos bancos y el indicador de seguimiento a la economía (ISE) del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadísticas (DANE). Con esto, se estima que en el primer trimestre el producto caiga un 0,3 % anual. El consumo privado seguiría recuperándose y mostraría un nivel algo superior al registrado un año atrás, mientras que el consumo público presentaría un aumento importante. Si bien se anticipa una recuperación en la inversión en vivienda y en otros edificios y estructuras, los niveles seguirían siendo bajos y la formación bruta de capital fijo continuaría con caídas anuales significativas. Las importaciones volverían a recuperarse a un mejor ritmo que las exportaciones, pero ambas registrarían descensos anuales importantes. La mejor dinámica observada de la actividad económica frente a lo proyectado, el incremento en los precios del petróleo y otros productos de exportación, junto con el aumento esperado del gasto público en el presente año, explican un alza en el pronóstico de crecimiento económico para 2021 (del 4,6 %, en un rango del 2 % al 6 % en enero, al 6,0 %, en un rango del 3 % al 7 % en abril). Con esto, la brecha del producto sería menor y se cerraría más rápido de lo previsto en el informe anterior, pero continuaría siendo negativa en el horizonte de pronóstico. La evolución futura de la pandemia implica una incertidumbre significativa alrededor de estos pronósticos, como lo refleja la amplitud de los intervalos de proyección. El retraso en la recuperación de la actividad económica resultante del rebrote del Covid-19 en el primer trimestre habría sido menor que el proyectado en el informe de enero. En el escenario central de pronóstico esta mejor dinámica continuaría en 2021 de la mano de los mejores niveles de confianza de los hogares y las empresas. Las tasas de interés reales bajas y una oferta de crédito activa también soportarían dicha dinámica. Estas condiciones impulsarían la recuperación del consumo y la inversión. A lo anterior se suma el mayor crecimiento del gasto público y las obras civiles que se deriva del Plan Financiero del Gobierno. Adicionalmente, la recuperación esperada de la demanda global y los mayores niveles proyectados del precio del petróleo y del café contribuirían a un mejor desempeño de los ingresos externos y favorecerían la inversión, principalmente la destinada al sector petrolero. Con todo esto, el pronóstico de crecimiento para 2021 se revisó al alza del 4,6 % en enero (en un rango del 2 % al 6 %) al 6,0 % en abril (en un rango del 3 % al 7 %). Estas proyecciones incluyen una estimación de los efectos de la tercera ola de contagio del Covid-19, con un impacto económico mayor y más persistente que la ola anterior, y suponen que no habrá rebrotes importantes adicionales de la pandemia, por lo cual las restricciones a la movilidad se volverían a flexibilizar. Para 2022 el crecimiento económico sería del 3 %, en un rango entre el 1 % y 5 %, cifra más baja que la estimación del informe de enero (3,6 %, en un rango entre el 2 % y 6 %), por cuenta de una mayor base de comparación, dada la revisión al alza del nivel del PIB en 2021. Este pronóstico incorpora los efectos sobre la demanda privada de un ajuste fiscal del tamaño propuesto por el Gobierno, el cual entraría en vigor en 2022. Los excesos de capacidad productiva serían menores que los estimados en enero, pero seguirían siendo amplios y con una elevada incertidumbre, como se refleja en la amplitud de los rangos de pronóstico. La posibilidad de nuevos rebrotes (de intensidad y duración inciertas) es un riesgo importante a la baja para la proyección de crecimiento del PIB, recogido en los límites inferiores de los rangos señalados. En marzo de 2021 la inflación (1,51 %) y la inflación sin alimentos ni regulados (SAR: 0,94 %) descendieron con respecto al dato de diciembre y continuaron por debajo de la meta del 3 %. En ese período la caída de la inflación resultó menor que la proyectada, hecho explicado en gran parte por aumentos no anticipados en algunos ítems de alimentos (3,92 %) y regulados (1,52 %). El incremento en los precios internacionales de los alimentos y de los fletes, la mayor demanda externa por carne bovina, así como presiones alcistas puntuales de oferta en el grupo de perecederos habrían explicado una desaceleración menor que la esperada en el índice de precios al consumidor (IPC) de alimentos. La sorpresa al alza en el grupo de regulados se debió a incrementos no anticipados en los precios internacionales de los combustibles, de algunos servicios públicos y de la educación regulada. El descenso de la inflación anual SAR entre diciembre y marzo fue similar al estimado en enero, aunque con un impacto importante a la baja causado por reducciones significativas de las tarifas de telefonía ante la entrada inminente de un nuevo operador. Si se descuenta el efecto de este cambio en dicho precio relativo, la inflación SAR habría superado el pronóstico del informe anterior. Dentro de esta medida de la inflación básica, el IPC de bienes (1,05 %) se aceleró debido a la reversión del efecto del día sin IVA (noviembre), la cual fue capturada en gran medida en febrero, y posiblemente por la transmisión de la reciente depreciación del peso a los precios internos de algunos ítems (electrodomésticos y aparatos de uso doméstico). Por su parte, los precios de la canasta de servicios se desaceleraron y presentaron el menor crecimiento anual (0,89 %) entre los grandes grupos del IPC. En esta última canasta los ajustes anuales de los arriendos continuaron cediendo, los servicios con más restricciones para normalizar sus operaciones (turismo, cine, discotecas, etc.) siguieron registrando caídas importantes de precios y, como se mencionó, las tarifas de telefonía descendieron de forma sustancial por cuenta de una mayor competencia en dicho mercado. En lo que resta de 2021 y en 2022 la inflación total seguiría siendo afectada por unos amplios excesos de capacidad productiva, aunque menores que los estimados en enero. Con esto, la convergencia de la inflación a la meta sería algo más rápida que la estimada en el informe pasado, en ausencia de rebrotes fuertes del Covid-19. Para finales de ambos años el pronóstico de inflación del equipo técnico aumentó e indica que esta se situaría alrededor del 3 %, en buena medida por cambios en los precios de los alimentos y los regulados. Las proyecciones de la inflación SAR también subieron, pero se mantienen por debajo del 3 %. En el segundo semestre de 2021 los alivios de impuestos indirectos registrados en 2020 se revertirían y tendrían un efecto por una sola vez sobre el nivel de precios, impactando transitoriamente la inflación SAR. No obstante, la indexación a una baja tasa de inflación pasada, la debilidad en la demanda y unos amplios excesos de capacidad productiva mantendrían la inflación básica por debajo de la meta, cercana al 2,3 % al final de 2021 (antes 2,1 %). La reversión en 2021 de los efectos de los alivios a los precios de los servicios públicos de 2020 debería generar un incremento del IPC de regulados en el segundo semestre de este año. La variación anual de estos precios sería mayor que la estimada en el informe de enero debido a una mayor senda esperada del precio de los combustibles y por los aumentos no anticipados en los precios de la educación regulada. La proyección del IPC de alimentos aumentó frente al informe pasado, al incorporar los factores no anticipados en enero (ciclo agrícola menos favorable, mayores presiones provenientes de los precios internacionales y costos de transporte). Con todo esto, al final de 2021 y 2022 la inflación anual se situaría en el 3 % y el 2,8 %, respectivamente, tasas mayores que la proyectadas en enero (2,3 % y 2,7 %). Para los mismos años, las expectativas de inflación de los analistas económicos sugieren que la inflación se situaría en el 2,8 % y 3,1 %, respectivamente. Los pronósticos de inflación de este informe involucran una elevada incertidumbre debido a: 1) la evolución futura de la pandemia; 2) la dificultad para evaluar el tamaño y la persistencia de los excesos de capacidad productiva; 3) el momento y la medida en que se reviertan los alivios de precios y, 4) el comportamiento futuro de los precios de los alimentos. Para 2021 se revisaron al alza el pronóstico de crecimiento de la demanda externa (del 4,4 % al 5,2 %) y el supuesto del precio promedio del petróleo (de USD 53 a USD 61 por barril Brent). Las tasas de interés externas de largo plazo aumentaron y se han reflejado en una depreciación del peso, lo cual podría resultar en condiciones financieras externas menos holgadas para los países emergentes, incluido Colombia. En el cuarto trimestre de 2020 el crecimiento económico promedio de los socios comerciales del país fue mejor que el esperado. Esta mejor dinámica, junto con el fuerte estímulo fiscal aprobado en los Estados Unidos y el inicio de la vacunación masiva en el mundo, explican gran parte del alza en el pronóstico de crecimiento de la demanda externa para 2021. A esto se suma la resiliencia del mercado de bienes ante la crisis mundial y la normalización esperada del comercio global. Estos factores y las menores restricciones esperadas a la movilidad deberían contribuir a que los socios comerciales alcancen en 2021 un crecimiento promedio del 5,2 % y de alrededor del 3,4 % para 2022, más cercano al de largo plazo. Las mejores perspectivas de crecimiento global elevaron el precio del petróleo y sus pronósticos, a lo cual también contribuyó la interrupción de la producción ocasionada por el fuerte invierno, los menores inventarios y las mayores restricciones de oferta por parte de los principales países productores. En los Estados Unidos los anuncios recientes de la Reserva Federal y los pronósticos del mercado sugieren que su tasa de interés de política permanecerá estable en los siguientes dos años. No obstante, el fuerte incremento del gasto público en ese país generó expectativas de mayor crecimiento e inflación, así como mayor incertidumbre sobre el momento en que se inicie la normalización de su política monetaria. Lo anterior se reflejó en un alza de las tasas de interés de largo plazo. En este entorno, las economías emergentes de la región, incluida Colombia, registraron aumentos en sus primas de riesgo, en las tasas de interés locales de largo plazo y una depreciación de sus monedas frente al dólar. Los recientes rebrotes del Covid-19 en varias de estas economías; las limitaciones de oferta de vacunas, y la lentitud observada en los sistemas de inmunización de algunos países; el fuerte incremento en los niveles de deuda pública, y las tensiones entre los Estados Unidos y China, entre otros, son factores que generan una elevada incertidumbre sobre los diferenciales de tasas de interés, las condiciones de financiamiento externo y el comportamiento futuro de las primas de riesgo. El impacto que esto tenga sobre la tasa de cambio y sobre las condiciones financieras internas son riesgos sobre el pronóstico macroeconómico y la política monetaria. Las condiciones financieras internas siguen favoreciendo la recuperación de la actividad económica. La transmisión de las reducciones en la tasa de interés de política hacia las tasas de interés de crédito ha sido significativa. La cartera bancaria se sigue recuperando, en un entorno en el que la pandemia ha afectado la oferta y la demanda de préstamos, y en el que se ha materializado el riesgo de crédito. Las tasas de interés de los préstamos comerciales preferenciales y ordinarios se han reducido en una magnitud similar a las caídas de la tasa de interés de política. Como se ha observado históricamente, esta transmisión ha sido más lenta hacia las tasas de interés de los créditos de consumo, y aún más demorada hacia las tasas de interés hipotecarias. En marzo el monto del crédito comercial se estabilizó en niveles superiores a los registrados antes de la pandemia, después del aumento generado por las fuertes necesidades de liquidez de las empresas en el segundo trimestre de 2020. La cartera dirigida a los hogares se sigue recuperando y ya supera los valores observados en febrero del año anterior. No obstante, el crecimiento de la cartera total es bajo. Al tiempo, las provisiones de cartera y el indicador de mora se incrementaron, y las utilidades de los establecimientos de crédito se deterioraron. A pesar de esto, los desembolsos de crédito se siguen recuperando y los indicadores de solvencia siguen muy por encima del mínimo regulatorio. 1.2 Decisión de política monetaria En las reuniones de marzo y abril la JDBR decidió mantener la tasa de política monetaria inalterada en 1,75 %.Recuadro 1 - La transmision de los cambios en la tasa de interes de política monetaria (TPM) hacia las tasas de interés de los establecimientos de credito (EC). Autores: Isleny Carranza Amortegui, Deicy Cristiano Botia, Eliana González Molano, Carlos Huertas CamposRecuadro 2. Análisis de las expectativas macroeconómicas implícitas en los instrumentos del mercado financiero. Autores: Hernando Vargas, Alexander Guarín, Anderson Grajales-Olarte, Jonathan Muño

Clonal chromosomal mosaicism and loss of chromosome Y in elderly men increase vulnerability for SARS-CoV-2

The pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19) had an estimated overall case fatality ratio of 1.38% (pre-vaccination), being 53% higher in males and increasing exponentially with age. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, we found 133 cases (1.42%) with detectable clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations (mCA) and 226 males (5.08%) with acquired loss of chromosome Y (LOY). Individuals with clonal mosaic events (mCA and/or LOY) showed a 54% increase in the risk of COVID-19 lethality. LOY is associated with transcriptomic biomarkers of immune dysfunction, pro-coagulation activity and cardiovascular risk. Interferon-induced genes involved in the initial immune response to SARS-CoV-2 are also down-regulated in LOY. Thus, mCA and LOY underlie at least part of the sex-biased severity and mortality of COVID-19 in aging patients. Given its potential therapeutic and prognostic relevance, evaluation of clonal mosaicism should be implemented as biomarker of COVID-19 severity in elderly people. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, individuals with clonal mosaic events (clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations and/or loss of chromosome Y) showed an increased risk of COVID-19 lethality