Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Çağdaş Faizsiz Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

The Ottoman State is accepted as the civilization of waqfs so that the borrowing by people who needed cash was provided by waqfs that had cash as capital. These waqfs operated their capitals within the limits that were drawn by Ottoman ulemas under the effects of interest ban in Islamic states. These waqfs can be thought of as the pioneers of modern Islamic financial institutions. The cash waqfs (CWs) became the factor of stability in the Ottoman financial system with controlling high usury rates and determining the market interest rate. Today, the participation banks as fulfill the function of interest-free financial institutions. The participation banks that bring together the people who want to borrow money without interest and the people who want to operate his capital in accordance with Islamic rules (with halal ways) differ from cash waqfs in some respects. Even though they follow similar financial methods, the difference in their purposes and other characteristics as interest-free financial institutions and the pioneering role of CWs will be examined in this study.Vakıf medeniyeti olarak tanımlanan Osmanlı Devleti’nde nakit ihtiyacı olanların borçlanması da sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan vakıflar ile karşılanmıştır. İslam devletlerinde olan faiz yasağının etkisiyle bu vakıflar Osmanlı ulemasının çizmiş olduğu sınırlar çerçevesinde sermayelerini işletmiştir. Bu vakıfları günümüz faizsiz finans kurumlarının öncüleri olarak düşünebiliriz. Dönemlerinde piyasa dışı yüksek borçlanma oranlarını kontrol eden ve bir nevi piyasa faizini belirleyen bir işlev gören para vakıfları aynı zamanda uzun yıllar Osmanlı finans sisteminde istikrar unsuru olmuşlardır. Günümüzde ise bu işlevi faizsiz finans kurumları olarak tanımlayabileceğimiz Katılım bankaları yerine getirmektedir. Faizden kaçınarak borçlanmak isteyen kişiler ile olan sermayesini helâl yollar ile değerlendirmeyi düşünen kişileri bir araya getiren katılım bankaları belirli yönlerden para vakıflarından ayrılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, her ne kadar benzer finansal metotlar izleseler de, faizsiz finans kurumları ile onların öncüsü para vakıflarının amaçları ve diğer özellikleri arasındaki farklılıklar incelenecektir

1923’TEN GÜNÜMÜZE İZMİR’DE TURİZM HAREKETLERİNİN TARİHSEL GELİŞİMİ

İzmir, sahip olduğu doğal, kültürel ve tarihi varlıklar ile önemli bir turizm şehridir. 19. Yüzyıldan bu yana modern turizm hareketlerine sahne olan İzmir, bünyesinde pek çok turizm türüne uygun, farklı turistik çekim unsurlarını barındırmaktadır. Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarından 1950’li yıllara kadar olan süreçte dünya ve Türkiye, sosyal ve ekonomik anlamda çalkantılı bir süreçten geçmiştir. Bu dönemde Türkiye’nin finansal olarak kısıtlı imkân ve kaynağa sahip olması sebebiyle planlı dönem öncesi süreçte Türk ve İzmir turizmin gelişimine uygun bir ortamın varlığından söz etmek pek mümkün olmamıştır. Bu durum 1960’lı ve 1970’li yıllarda da devam etmiş, bu dönemlerde ulaşım ve konaklama alanındaki eksiklikler İzmir turizminde etkisini yoğun şekilde hissettirmiştir. 1982 tarihinde çıkarılan Turizmi Teşvik Kanunu ile beraber Türkiye’de konaklama yatırımı yapılmasının kolaylaştırılması adına bazı teşvikler getirilmiş ve bu dönemde izlenilen politikalar sonucunda İzmir turizminin bugünkü konumunun temelleri atılmıştır. 1990’lı yıllardan itibaren Türk turizm politikalarında alternatif turizm çeşitlerine daha çok yer verilmeye başlanmış, bu durum 2000’li yıllarda artarak devam etmiştir. Türk turizm politikalarındaki bu değişim İzmir’e de yansımış ve bilhassa 2000’li yıllar ile beraber kongre, termal ve sağlık turizmi gibi alternatif turizm çeşitleri İzmir turizmine dair tartışma ve çözüm önerilerinde kendine geniş yer bulmuştur. iv Son 20 yılda alanyazın ve sektör temsilcileri tarafından İzmir’in sahip olduğu doğal, kültürel ve tarihi zenginlikler nedeniyle turizm alanında önemli bir potansiyele sahip olduğu ancak bu potansiyelin iyi değerlendirilemediği görüşü sıklıkla dile getirilmektedir. Bu sebeple bu araştırmada cumhuriyet dönemi İzmir turizminin tarihsel süreci ortaya koyulmuş ve mevcut durumun geçmiş ile bağı sorgulanmıştır. Ayrıca İzmir turizmine dair güncel tartışmalara da değinilerek görüş ve önerilerde bulunulmuştur

Which of us were more affected by the pandemic? The psychiatric impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare professionals in the province where the first quarantine units were established in Turkey

Introduction Psychiatric problems, such as stress and anxiety disorders, are encountered amongst healthcare professionals fighting epidemics. Considering that COVID-19 suddenly became a pandemic and healthcare professionals have not had access to sufficient information, it is a fact that healthcare professionals have been affected on a large scale. Heavy workloads, insufficient equipment and anxiety over families increase this impact. We aimed to investigate the extent to which healthcare professionals have been psychologically affected by COVID-19 and related factors. Methodology Data obtained through questionnaires completed by 348 healthcare professionals working during the COVID-19 pandemic and 350 participants who are in the control group were investigated. The Impact of Event Scale-revised (IES-R) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the Severity Index (ISI) for insomnia were used. Differences regarding gender, occupation, age group, marital status and sub-groups were statistically analysed. Results Of the 348 healthcare professionals, 176 (50.6%) were women and 172 (49.4%) men, while 190 (54.6%) were doctors and 158 (45.4%) nurses. The incidence of PTSD was statistically significantly higher in the healthcare professionals group than in the control group (P < .001). The incidence of PTSD was statistically significantly higher amongst nurses (P = .001), women (P = .002) and those who were married (P = .007). Both PTSD and insomnia were found to be statistically significantly higher amongst those working in the "area of final diagnosis" (P = .016 and P = .002, respectively). Conclusions The determination of the groups most affected amongst professionals working in epidemics is important for the planning of in-service training and psychological support studies. If the fight against pandemics includes health teams with strong psychological grounding, it leads to qualified medical care for patients

The effect of COVID-19 epidemic on the sexual function of healthcare professionals

Studies have shown that healthcare professionals struggling with epidemics develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. The aim of this study is to show how often and severely erectile dysfunction, one of the components of post-traumatic stress disorder, is seen among healthcare professionals during COVID-19 outbreak. The Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) and the Index of Erectile Function-5 (IIEF-5) were applied to 159 male healthcare professionals working in COVID-19 units and a control group of 200 people. Healthcare professional group was divided into subgroups according to occupation (physician, nurse), age-group (18-25, 26-30, >30), marital status and unit of work (Suspected Patient Area, Diagnosed Patient Area). Both stress disorder and erectile dysfunction were seen at higher rates in healthcare professionals group (p < .001). The median IIEF-5 scores of nurses, married subjects and those working in the Diagnosed Patient Area, were found to be higher (p < .001, p = .014, p = .011 respectively). During the COVID-19 outbreak, healthcare professionals are exposed to psychological trauma and their sexual function may be negatively affected. The measures to be taken are important to estimate which groups are more affected

XV. ve XIX. Yüzyıllar Arasında Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Modern Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

Most of the services provided by modern states to their citizens today were provided by the waqfs during the Ottoman period. The fact that the influence of Islamic religion on the social life was high was one of the most important factors driving people to establish the waqfs. The waqfs founded by philanthropists financed such social needs as religious services, education and infrastructure. The cash waqfs (CWs) were one of the waqf types that financed the needs of the society. The CWs whose capital was cash money provided financial sources to entrepreneurs who were in need of cash according to Islamic methods. The CWs continued to function until the last period of the Ottomans. That the Ottomans used CWs to carry out the functions of the modern financial institutions of Europe is important to understand the Ottoman economic and financial mentality. By using the primary sources, this study aims to analyze the Ottoman economic mentality through studying CWs. In addition, the financial institutions operating in Europe in the same Günümüzde modern devletler tarafından vatandaşlara sağlanan çoğu hizmetler, Osmanlı döneminde vakıflar tarafından sağlanıyordu. İslâm dininin toplumsal hayat üzerindeki etkisinin yüksek olması insanları vakıf kurmaya iten önemli etkenlerin başında geliyordu. Hayırseverler tarafından kurulan vakıflar, dini hizmetler, eğitim, altyapı vb. toplumsal ihtiyaçları finanse etmekteydi. Para vakıfları, toplumun ihtiyaçlarını finanse eden vakıf türlerinden birisidir. Sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan bu vakıflar ihtiyacı olan girişimcilere İslâmî usullere göre finansman sağlamıştır. Para vakıfları Osmanlıların son dönemlerine kadar işleyişini devam ettiren kurumlar olmuştur. Osmanlıların, aynı dönemde Avrupa’daki modern finansal kurumların gelişmesine karşı para vakıfları ile bu kurumların işlevlerini yerine getirmesi, Osmanlı iktisadi ve finansal zihniyetini anlamak açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı birincil kaynaklarından incelenen para vakıfları ile Osmanlı iktisadi zihniyetini analiz etmektir. Ayrıca aynı dönemde faaliyet gösteren ve para vakıfları ile çağdaş olarak Avrupa’da faaliyet gösteren finansal kurumlar da incelenecek ve iktisadi zihniyetler arasında karşılaştırma yapılmaya çalışılacaktır

A Look to The Ottoman Cash Waqfs As Altruistic Finance Model

Although the waqfs have existed with the history of humanity and are useful in all societies, they had different role and place in Islamic societies. The waqfs have made institutionalized cooperation and solidarity among people. Especially in Islamic societies, great importance has been attached to waqfs. The waqfs that helped institutionalize the concept of infaq met many needs of the community. One of the Islamic states where the foundations are very active was the Ottoman Empire. The size of the waqf services in the Ottoman Empire expanded so much that, besides the human services, waqfs for injured birds and sick animals were established. The fact that the waqfs are so widespread in the state has made it possible to refer to the Ottoman Empire as a waqf civilization. One of the waqf types operating in the Ottoman Empire was the cash waqfs (CWs) which were made up of cash in the capital. The CWs operated the cash that made up its capital with various Islamic finance methods. Revenues from the operating money were used in the direction of waqf purpose. The CWs provided the vital necessities of the society such as education and religion in the period they were active in the Ottoman Empire. Another function of these waqfs was to operate as a micro-credit mechanism. Through these waqfs, the surplus and the accumulated savings in the hands of the asset owners were made available to merchants, farmers, craftsmen, and artisans. Hence, these waqfs have served as resource transfer channels as well as functioning as a charity in the society. The ultimate goal of CWs, which is the pioneer of modern interest-free financial institutions today, is different from these institutions. The CWs did not transfer the profits they got to the waqf founder or owner. The income obtained has been spent to fulfill the charitable services in the direction of the waqf purposes. Therefore, these institutions created Altruistic Finance Model operating within the borders of Islamic prohibitions and orders. In our study, the financial mentality of the Ottoman society in the context of the CWs and how this mentality shaped the CWs will be discussed

A Comparison between Ottoman Cash Waqfs (CWs) and Participation Banks and Modern Interest-free Financial Institutions

The Ottoman State is accepted as the civilization of waqf so that the borrowing of people who needed cash was provided by waqfs that had cash as capital. These waqfs operated their capitals within the limits that were drawn by Ottoman ulema under the effects of interest ban in Islamic states. These waqfs can be thought of as the pioneers of modern Islamic financial institutions. The CWs became the factor of stability in the Ottoman financial system with controlling high usury rates and determining the market interest rate. Today, the participation banks as interest-free financial institutions fulfill this function. The participation banks that bring together the people who want to borrow money without interest and the people who want to operate his capital with halal ways are separated from cash waqfs in some respects. In this study, even though they follow similar financial methods, the difference in their purposes and other characteristics of interest-free financial institutions and their pioneer of CWs will be examined

Finansal İstikrar ve Para Vakıfları Etkisi: Rumeli Para Vakıfları Örnekleri

Vakıflar, İslam toplumlarında yardımlaşmanın ve toplumsal dayanışmanın yanında sosyal ve ekonomik hayatın önemli unsurları olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Vakıfların en önemli özelliği bu yardımlaşma ve dayanışmayı kurumsal hale getirmeleridir. Osmanlı Devleti’nde toplumsal hayatta çok önemli bir yer tutan vakıflar, Osmanlı Devleti’nin bir vakıf medeniyeti olarak anılmasına vesile olmuştur. Yapılan akademik çalışmalar ve analizler de vakıfların ekonomik sistemde merkez hazinesi ve tımar sisteminin hemen arkasında üçüncü bir ekonomik kurum olarak ortaya çıktığını göstermektedir. Bu sebeple, Osmanlı ekonomik yapısı üzerine yapılacak çalışmalarda vakıfların rolünü incelemek de oldukça önemlidir. Bu vakıfların bir türü “para (nukud) vakıfları” bu çalışmanın konusunu oluşturacaktır. Birincil kaynaklardan incelenen vakfiyeler üzerinden para vakıfların kuruluşları ve dayandıkları İslami arka plan incelenecektir. Ayrıca bu vakıfların uyguladıkları kâr oranlarının uzun dönemli analizi üzerinde durulacaktır. Aynı dönemlerde Avrupa’da uygulanan faiz oranları ile Osmanlı para vakıflarının kâr oranlarının karşılaştırması yapılacaktır. Bölge olarak Rumeli’nin seçilmesi de bu bölge hakkında para vakıfları hakkında yeterli derecede çalışma olmamasından ötürüdür. We meet waqf not only institutions provided the assistance and social solidarity between people but also an important elements of social and economic life in Islamic societies. The most important feature of waqf is to make this cooperation and solidarity institutional. The waqfs that had a very important place in social life in the Ottoman State have been instrumental that Ottoman State is a civilization of waqfs. Academic studies and analysis also shows that waqf system was third place in economic institutions after central treasury and timar system in economic system (Özcan, 2008, p. 143). Therefore, it is important to examine the role of waqf in studies on Ottoman economic structure. One type of this waqfs, “cash waqfs” will be subject of this study. The establishment procedure of cash waqfs and Islamic background of cash waqfs will be examined from primary sources (waqfiyahs). Moreover, we will emphasized long-term analysis on the profit rates that were determined by cash waqfs. The comparison between the European interest rates and profit rates of Ottoman cash waqfs at same era will be made. The region of Rumelia is selected as subject because there are not enough works about cash waqfs in this region

A Look to The Ottoman Cash Waqfs As Altruistic Finance Model

Although the waqfs have existed with the history of humanity and are useful in all societies, they had different role and place in Islamic societies. The waqfs have made institutionalized cooperation and solidarity among people. Especially in Islamic societies, great importance has been attached to waqfs. The waqfs that helped institutionalize the concept of infaq met many needs of the community. One of the Islamic states where the foundations are very active was the Ottoman Empire. The size of the waqf services in the Ottoman Empire expanded so much that, besides the human services, waqfs for injured birds and sick animals were established. The fact that the waqfs are so widespread in the state has made it possible to refer to the Ottoman Empire as a waqf civilization. One of the waqf types operating in the Ottoman Empire was the cash waqfs (CWs) which were made up of cash in the capital. The CWs operated the cash that made up its capital with various Islamic finance methods. Revenues from the operating money were used in the direction of waqf purpose. The CWs provided the vital necessities of the society such as education and religion in the period they were active in the Ottoman Empire. Another function of these waqfs was to operate as a micro-credit mechanism. Through these waqfs, the surplus and the accumulated savings in the hands of the asset owners were made available to merchants, farmers, craftsmen, and artisans. Hence, these waqfs have served as resource transfer channels as well as functioning as a charity in the society. The ultimate goal of CWs, which is the pioneer of modern interest-free financial institutions today, is different from these institutions. The CWs did not transfer the profits they got to the waqf founder or owner. The income obtained has been spent to fulfill the charitable services in the direction of the waqf purposes. Therefore, these institutions created Altruistic Finance Model operating within the borders of Islamic prohibitions and orders. In our study, the financial mentality of the Ottoman society in the context of the CWs and how this mentality shaped the CWs will be discussed

XV. ve XIX. Yüzyıllar Arasında Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Modern Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

Most of the services provided by modern states to their citizens today were provided by the waqfs during the Ottoman period. The fact that the influence of Islamic religion on the social life was high was one of the most important factors driving people to establish the waqfs. The waqfs founded by philanthropists financed such social needs as religious services, education and infrastructure. The cash waqfs (CWs) were one of the waqf types that financed the needs of the society. The CWs whose capital was cash money provided financial sources to entrepreneurs who were in need of cash according to Islamic methods. The CWs continued to function until the last period of the Ottomans. That the Ottomans used CWs to carry out the functions of the modern financial institutions of Europe is important to understand the Ottoman economic and financial mentality. By using the primary sources, this study aims to analyze the Ottoman economic mentality through studying CWs. In addition, the financial institutions operating in Europe in the same Günümüzde modern devletler tarafından vatandaşlara sağlanan çoğu hizmetler, Osmanlı döneminde vakıflar tarafından sağlanıyordu. İslâm dininin toplumsal hayat üzerindeki etkisinin yüksek olması insanları vakıf kurmaya iten önemli etkenlerin başında geliyordu. Hayırseverler tarafından kurulan vakıflar, dini hizmetler, eğitim, altyapı vb. toplumsal ihtiyaçları finanse etmekteydi. Para vakıfları, toplumun ihtiyaçlarını finanse eden vakıf türlerinden birisidir. Sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan bu vakıflar ihtiyacı olan girişimcilere İslâmî usullere göre finansman sağlamıştır. Para vakıfları Osmanlıların son dönemlerine kadar işleyişini devam ettiren kurumlar olmuştur. Osmanlıların, aynı dönemde Avrupa’daki modern finansal kurumların gelişmesine karşı para vakıfları ile bu kurumların işlevlerini yerine getirmesi, Osmanlı iktisadi ve finansal zihniyetini anlamak açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı birincil kaynaklarından incelenen para vakıfları ile Osmanlı iktisadi zihniyetini analiz etmektir. Ayrıca aynı dönemde faaliyet gösteren ve para vakıfları ile çağdaş olarak Avrupa’da faaliyet gösteren finansal kurumlar da incelenecek ve iktisadi zihniyetler arasında karşılaştırma yapılmaya çalışılacaktır