New near-IR observations of mesospheric CO2 and H2O clouds on Mars

Carbon dioxide clouds, which are speculated by models on solar and extra-solar planets, have been recently observed near the equator of Mars. The most comprehensive identification of Martian CO2 ice clouds has been obtained by the near-IR imaging spectrometer OMEGA. CRISM, a similar instrument with a higher spatial resolution, cannot detect these clouds with the same method due to its shorter wavelength range. Here we present a new method to detect CO2 clouds using near-IR data based on the comparison of H2O and CO2 ice spectral properties. The spatial and seasonal distributions of 54 CRISM observations containing CO2 clouds are reported, in addition to 17 new OMEGA observations. CRISM CO2 clouds are characterized by grain size in the 0.5-2\mum range and optical depths lower than 0.3. The distributions of CO2 clouds inferred from OMEGA and CRISM are consistent with each other and match at first order the distribution of high altitude (>60km) clouds derived from previous studies. At second order, discrepancies are observed. We report the identification of H2O clouds extending up to 80 km altitude, which could explain part of these discrepancies: both CO2 and H2O clouds can exist at high, mesospheric altitudes. CRISM observations of afternoon CO2 clouds display morphologies resembling terrestrial cirrus, which generalizes a previous result to the whole equatorial clouds season. Finally, we show that morning OMEGA observations have been previously misinterpreted as evidence for cumuliform, and hence potentially convective, CO2 clouds.Comment: Vincendon, M., C. Pilorget, B. Gondet, S. Murchie, and J.-P. Bibring (2011), New near-IR observations of mesospheric CO2 and H2O clouds on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 116, E00J0

The Petrochemistry of Jake_M: A Martian Mugearite

“Jake_M,” the first rock analyzed by the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer instrument on the Curiosity rover, differs substantially in chemical composition from other known martian igneous rocks: It is alkaline (&gt;15% normative nepheline) and relatively fractionated. Jake_M is compositionally similar to terrestrial mugearites, a rock type typically found at ocean islands and continental rifts. By analogy with these comparable terrestrial rocks, Jake_M could have been produced by extensive fractional crystallization of a primary alkaline or transitional magma at elevated pressure, with or without elevated water contents. The discovery of Jake_M suggests that alkaline magmas may be more abundant on Mars than on Earth and that Curiosity could encounter even more fractionated alkaline rocks (for example, phonolites and trachytes).</jats:p

Mars’ Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory’s Curiosity Rover

The Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on the Mars Science Laboratory’s Curiosity rover began making detailed measurements of the cosmic ray and energetic particle radiation environment on the surface of Mars on 7 August 2012. We report and discuss measurements of the absorbed dose and dose equivalent from galactic cosmic rays and solar energetic particles on the martian surface for ~300 days of observations during the current solar maximum. These measurements provide insight into the radiation hazards associated with a human mission to the surface of Mars and provide an anchor point with which to model the subsurface radiation environment, with implications for microbial survival times of any possible extant or past life, as well as for the preservation of potential organic biosignatures of the ancient martian environment.</jats:p

VIS-IR spectroscopy of mixtures of ice, organic matter and opaque mineral in support of minor bodies remote sensing observations

International audienceWe investigate the VIS-IR spectral reflectance of mixtures rich in water ice and organics, in support of the interpretation of remote sensing observations of minor bodies from space missions, and to test the ability of radiative transfer models to infer surface composition from VIS-IR spectroscopy

VIS-IR Spectroscopy of Mixtures of Water Ice, Organic Matter, and Opaque Mineral in Support of Small Body Remote Sensing Observations

International audienceVisual-to-infrared (VIS-IR) remote sensing observations of different classes of outer solar system objects indicate the presence of water ice and organics. Here, we present laboratory reflectance spectra in the 0.5–4.2 μm spectral range of binary particulate mixtures of water ice, organics analogue (kerite), and an opaque iron sulphide phase (pyrrhotite) to investigate the spectral effects of varying mixing ratios, endmember grain size, and mixing modality. The laboratory spectra are also compared to different implementations of the Hapke reflectance model (Hapke, 2012). We find that minor amounts (≲1 wt%) of kerite (investigated grain sizes of 45–63 μm and <25 μm) can remain undetected when mixed in coarse-grained (67 ± 31 μm) water ice, suggesting that organics similar to meteoritic insoluble organic matter (IOM) might be characterized by larger detectability thresholds. Additionally, our measurements indicate that the VIS absolute reflectance of water ice-containing mixtures is not necessarily monotonically linked to water ice abundance. The latter is better constrained by spectral indicators such as the band depths of water ice VIS-IR diagnostic absorptions and spectral slopes. Simulation of laboratory spectra of intimate mixtures with a semi-empirical formulation of the Hapke model suggests that simplistic assumptions on the endmember grain size distribution and shape may lead to estimated mixing ratios considerably offset from the nominal values. Finally, laboratory spectra of water ice grains with fine-grained pyrrhotite inclusions (intraparticle mixture) have been positively compared with a modified version of the Hapke model from Lucey and Riner (2011)

Initial SuperCam Visible/Near-Infrared Spectra from the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The SuperCam Instrument Suite [1-4], a US-French-Spanish-Danish collaboration, consists of three separate units: the Body Unit (BU) within the Rover [2], the Mast Unit (MU) at the top of the Perseverance Remote Sensing Mast [3], and Calibration Targets [4] located on the rover deck. SuperCam includes a passive visible/near-infrared (VISIR) spectroscopy system that will identify minerals near the rover (mm-scale) to distant outcrops (m-scale) over an extended wavelength range (0.385-0.465 &amp;amp;#181;m, 0.536-0.853 &amp;amp;#181;m, 1.3-2.6 &amp;amp;#181;m) that is diagnostic for most mineral classes.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The infrared spectrometer (IRS) in the MU [5] uses an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) excited by a RF signal to successively diffract up to 256 different wavelengths ranging between 1.3 and 2.6 &amp;amp;#181;m on one of two available photodiodes to produce a single spectrum in about 80 seconds at a spectral resolution of 5-20 nm. The field-of-view (FOV) of the IRS is 1.15 mrad and is co-aligned with the RMI boresight. The visible (VIS) system in the BU comprises three spectrometers covering the UV (245 &amp;amp;#8211; 340 nm), violet (385 &amp;amp;#8211; 465 nm), and visible and near-infrared (VNIR, 536&amp;amp;#8211;853 nm). The spectrometers are fed by light collected by the telescope in the MU through an optical fiber connecting the MU and BU. The violet spectrometer has a spectral resolution of 0.12 nm, and the VNIR transmission spectrometer has a spectral resolution of 0.35 &amp;amp;#8211; 0.70 nm. The VIS FOV is 0.74 mrad and co-aligned with the IR FOV.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Several SuperCam calibration targets (SCCT) are dedicated to VISIR spectroscopy, including an AluWhite white target, an Aeroglaze Z307 black target, and red, cyan, and green color targets [4]. Several of the other targets whose primary purpose is for other techniques exhibit useful VISIR spectral features and will be observed [5].&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Raw data will be converted to radiance (W/m2/sr/&amp;amp;#181;m) with calibrated wavelengths using the instrument transfer function [6-7]. Relative reflectance spectra will be generated by dividing the calibrated radiance spectrum by either (1) a Mars atmospheric transmission spectrum and then by a modeled solar irradiance spectrum; or (2) a radiance spectrum of the white SCCT taken close in time to the surface observation, as is done with Mastcam-Z calibration [8].&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;This poster will show initial VISIR data acquired on Mars, compared with test and performance data obtained at Paris Observatory, LANL, and JPL. As of this writing, the planned observations during the first ~30 sols include spectra of the white and black SCCTs, and at least one Mars target spectrum.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[1] Farley et al. (2020), Space Sci. Rev. 216, 142. [2] Wiens et al. (2020) Space Sci. Rev. 216, in press, [3] Maurice et al. (2020) Space Sci. Rev. 216,in press, [4] Manrique et al. (2020) Space Sci. Rev. 216, 8, 1-27; [5] Cousin et al. (2021) this meeting [6] Fouchet et al. (2021) Icarus, in prep. [7] Royer et al. (2020) Rev. Scient. Instrum. 91, 063105. [8] Bell, J.F. et al. (2021), Space Sci. Rev, in press.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;</jats:p

The flight radiometric calibration of IRS/SuperCam onboard Perseverance: campaign follow up and performance assessment

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The Perseverance rover (Mars 2020 mission, NASA) is exploring the mineral diversity within Jezero, the host crater of a paleolake, and is searching for potential biosignatures and past habitability evidence. Amongst its science payload, the SuperCam instrument (LANL/USA and a consortium of French laboratories) plays a central role in the Mars habitability investigation by providing rapid, synergistic, fine-scale mineralogy, chemistry, and color imaging [1]. In particular, it carries the first near-infrared spectrometer, IRS, to be operated on the Martian surface. IRS is a miniaturized point spectrometer (~1.15 mrad field of view) located in the SuperCam&amp;amp;#8217;s mast unit. Its spectral range (1.3 &amp;amp;#8211; 2.6 &amp;amp;#181;m range) covers major silicate and hydrated mineral absorption features [2].&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt; &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The instrument has been fully calibrated on ground before its launch [3] but flight measurements are necessary to check and refine its instrumental response after the cruise, entry, descent and landing. During the first 90 sols, observations of the SuperCam Calibration Targets (SCCT) were routinely performed in alternance with scientific targets.&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;An opportunistic observation of the Mastcam-Z calibration target has also been acquired. The IRS sensitivity, measured on the White SCCT, appears to be generally compliant with the ground measurements, except at short wavelengths (Fig. 1).&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt; &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Flight calibrated measurements of the other SCCTs are compliant with their lab reference (Fig. 2) within 5 to 20 % for the Red and Cyan, but the evaluation of the absolute reflectance of the Black SCCT is far from expected, perhaps due to the ambient light misestimation. The calibration also consists in the removal of instrumental and environmental parasitic effects: CO 2 absorptions caused by the path of light through the Martian atmosphere are removed by dividing by a simulated spectrum of the gas; an EMI/EMC effect causing &amp;amp;#8220;glitches&amp;amp;#8221; in the AOTF&amp;amp;#8217;s RF power supply as well as in acquired data is mitigated by a specific detection algorithm; and readout spikes are eliminated by a statistical algorithm as well. Finally, datasets are cosmetically cleaned using higher level refinement algorithms (wavelets filtering and polynomial smoothing of the dark) to enhance band depth contrast without introducing significant biases. The remaining uncertainty on reflectance absolute level is mainly attributed to the error on the geometry of the illumination which requires a better modeling of local&amp;amp;#160; opography and the atmosphere diffusion. Some low frequency residuals are also miscalibrated by the current pipeline and still under investigation (e.g., RF power stability, thermal effects).&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt; &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Notwithstanding these calibration uncertainties, the instrument signal to noise ratio (SNR) is high enough, and the relative (i.e., spectral channel to spectral channel) calibration is precise enough to be sensitive to faint spectral features (down to a few percent band depth) even if few parts of the spectral range show very faint but high frequency effects. Thus we will present the assessment of the radiometric in-flight performance of the instrument and the evaluation of the detection threshold for specific spectral signatures. &amp;lt;/p&amp;gt; &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;img src=&amp;quot;data:image/png;base64, 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

VIS-IR Spectroscopy of Mixtures of Water Ice, Organic Matter, and Opaque Mineral in Support of Small Body Remote Sensing Observations

Visual-to-infrared (VIS-IR) remote sensing observations of different classes of outer solar system objects indicate the presence of water ice and organics. Here, we present laboratory reflectance spectra in the 0.5–4.2 μm spectral range of binary particulate mixtures of water ice, organics analogue (kerite), and an opaque iron sulphide phase (pyrrhotite) to investigate the spectral effects of varying mixing ratios, endmember grain size, and mixing modality. The laboratory spectra are also compared to different implementations of the Hapke reflectance model (Hapke, 2012). We find that minor amounts (≲1 wt%) of kerite (investigated grain sizes of 45–63 μm and &lt;25 μm) can remain undetected when mixed in coarse-grained (67 ± 31 μm) water ice, suggesting that organics similar to meteoritic insoluble organic matter (IOM) might be characterized by larger detectability thresholds. Additionally, our measurements indicate that the VIS absolute reflectance of water ice-containing mixtures is not necessarily monotonically linked to water ice abundance. The latter is better constrained by spectral indicators such as the band depths of water ice VIS-IR diagnostic absorptions and spectral slopes. Simulation of laboratory spectra of intimate mixtures with a semi-empirical formulation of the Hapke model suggests that simplistic assumptions on the endmember grain size distribution and shape may lead to estimated mixing ratios considerably offset from the nominal values. Finally, laboratory spectra of water ice grains with fine-grained pyrrhotite inclusions (intraparticle mixture) have been positively compared with a modified version of the Hapke model from Lucey and Riner (2011).</jats:p

MASCOT’s in situ analysis of asteroid Ryugu in the context of regolith samples and remote sensing data returned by Hayabusa2

The Hayabusa2 mission provided a unique data set of asteroid Ryugu that covers a wide range of spatial scale from the orbiter remote sensing instruments to the returned samples. The MASCOT lander that was delivered onto the surface of Ryugu aimed to provide context for these data sets by producing in situ data collected by a camera (MasCam), a radiometer (MARA), a magnetometer (MasMag) and a spectrometer (MicrOmega). In this work, we evaluate the success of MASCOT as an integrated lander to bridge the gap between orbiter and returned sample analysis. We find that MASCOT’s measurements and derivatives thereof, including the rock morphology, colour in the visible wavelengths, possible meteorite analogue, density, and porosity of the rock at the landing site are in good agreement with those of the orbiter and the returned samples. However, it also provides information on the spatial scale (sub-millimetres to centimetres) at which some physical properties such as the thermal inertia and reflectance undergo scale-dependent changes. Some of the in situ observations such as the presence of clast/inclusions in rocks and the absence of fine particles at the landing site was uniquely identified by MASCOT. Thus, we conclude that the delivery of an in situ instrument like MASCOT provides a valuable data set that complements and provides context for remote sensing and returned sample analyses.Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-04-14 (johcin);Funder: German Aerospace Center (DLR);  French space agency (CNES);Part of special issue: New Insights in Planetary Science with Hayabusa, Hayabusa2, and Future Space Missions</p