Macrolithic tools for mining and primary processing of metal ores from the site of Grotta della Monaca (Calabria, Italy)

Grotta della Monaca is a karst cave located in Calabria, the southernmost region of the Italian peninsula. About half a kilometre deep, the cavern has drawn the attention of people since the Palaeolithic period due to the abundance of metal ores within (mainly iron hydroxides but also copper carbonates). These easily reachable minerals were exploited during prehistory, especially between the late Neolithic and the early Copper Age.Research conducted from 2000 to 2012 has allowed us to understand various aspects of ancient mining activities performed within the site and to reconstruct a basic operational chain concerning the procurement and the primary processing of such resources, from the choice of tools to the various extractive techniques, from the disposal of mining debris to the early operations of ore processing.In this paper we focus on two categories of macrolithic tools: those used to extract minerals, and those used for their primary processing. The first group is composed of 51 artefacts divided into axes, hammers, and pickaxes with a central groove, found in the deeper areas of the cave, which represent the mining areas. Their morphological and dimensional variability indicates a significant functional diversification; furthermore, the choice of different very hard metamorphic rocks implies a high awareness in the selection of the raw materials used for making these implements. The second group includes 22 tools with different functions - mainly made of sandstone - classified as querns, grinders and crushers. They were found in an underground area adjacent to the entrance, which is characterized by large and comfortable spaces, with the widespread presence of natural light. A recent traceological study has clarified the function of such artefacts; they were used to grind mined blocks of iron hydroxides to obtain a powder. The multidisciplinary approach adopted in studying mining tools from Grotta della Monaca, including petrographic, typological and use-wear analysis, has allowed us to gain important knowledge about the general characteristics of these tools

The application of 3D modeling and spatial analysis in the study of groundstones used in wild plants processing

In recent years, several works have proved the reliability of the application of 3D modeling and spatial analysis in the study of stone tool use. Monitoring surface morphometry resulting from the use of lithic tools has the potential to objectively quantify and identify patterns of modifications associated to specific activities and worked materials. In particular, the combination of surface morphometry with a systematic experimental framework and use wear analysis has the potential of foreseeing residue distribution areas over the groundstone surfaces, hence providing a key aid in establishing sampling strategies applied to archeological specimens. Here, we propose an approach that applies 3D modeling, performed through a close-range photogrammetry, and the use of GIS software to investigate surface modifications and residue distribution on groundstones used to process wild plants. Our work comprises a dedicated experimental framework in which modern tool replicas have been used to process different species of wild plant foods through grinding, crushing, and pounding. By applying 3D modeling and spatial analysis, we were able to characterize patterns of surface modifications related to each of the worked substances and activities performed. Moreover, we monitored the distribution of starch granules over the experimental groundstone surfaces and its variation in relation to the state of the worked substance and the action carried out. Our results provide one of the first experimental dataset focused on the use of groundstones for wild plant processing, and a reliable methodology for further studies related to the exploitation of stone technology and wild vegetal substances in the past

Shaped stone balls were used for bone marrow extraction at Lower Paleolithic Qesem Cave, Israel

The presence of shaped stone balls at early Paleolithic sites has attracted scholarly attention since the pioneering work of the Leakeys in Olduvai, Tanzania. Despite the persistent presence of these items in the archaeological record over a period of two million years, their function is still debated. We present new results from Middle Pleistocene Qesem Cave on the use of these implements as percussion tools. Use-wear and abundant bone and fat residues found on ten shaped stone balls indicate crushing of fresh bones by thrusting percussion and provide direct evidence for the use of these items to access bone marrow of animal prey at this site. Two experiments conducted to investigate and verify functional aspects proved Qesem Cave shaped stone balls are efficient for bone processing and provide a comfortable grip and useful active areas for repeated use. Notably, the patina observed on the analyzed items precedes their use at the cave, indicating that they were collected by Qesem inhabitants, most probably from older Lower Paleolithic Acheulian sites. Thus, our results refer only to the final phases of the life of the items, and we cannot attest to their original function. As bone marrow played a central role in human nutrition in the Lower Paleolithic, and our experimental results show that the morphology and characteristics of shaped stone ball replicas are well-suited for the extraction of bone marrow, we suggest that these features might have been the reason for their collection and use at Qesem Cave. These results shed light on the function of shaped stone balls and are consistent with the significance of animal fat in the caloric intake of Middle Pleistocene humans as shown by the archeozoological evidence at Qesem Cave and possibly beyondWe acknowledge funding received for this project through the European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant Project HIDDEN FOODS, G.A. no. 639286 to EC). CL is grateful to MAECI (Italian Ministry for the Foreign Affairs) for its funding support to this project. EA is grateful to the Azrieli Foundation for the award of an Azrieli Fellowship. This study was funded by the grant UT 41/4-1 “Cultural and biological transformations in the Late Middle Pleistocene (420- 200 ka ago) at Qesem Cave, Israel: In search for a post-Homo erectus lineage in the Levantine corridor” (A. Gopher, R. Barkai, Th. Uthmeier) of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). The Qesem Cave excavation project was previously supported by the Israel Science Foundation, the CARE Archaeological Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Dan David Foundation, and the German Research Foundatio

The function of macrolithic tools and exploitation of mineral resources during the recent Prehistory in the Western Mediterranea

Ce travail a pour but d'enquêter sur les modalités d'exploitation des ressources minérales pendant la Préhistoire récente, dans le bassin de la Méditerranée occidentale. L'étude débute par l'observation des instruments lithiques - outils macrolithiques - produits par les groupes humains préhistoriques, qui les ont utilisés dans les phases d'extraction. Ces outils sont analysés par la méthode morphologique et techno-fonctionnelle, par observation microscopiques, à grossissement faible et élevé. Toutes les étapes de cette activité sont abordées, permettant de traiter de la complexité qui tourne autour de l'extraction des minéraux. Les étapes de la chaîne opératoire sont analysées, depuis l'identification des sources d'approvisionnement - des hydroxydes de fer et de cuivre - à la production d'outils ; la recherche de matières premières lithiques, les techniques d'extraction, jusqu'aux premiers stades de transformation des minéraux. Le problème de l'exploitation du cuivre et des oxydes et hydroxydes de fer durant la Préhistoire, est un problème actuellement très discuté parce que cette activité a eu un effet important sur l'organisation des groupes préhistoriques. Une question posée est importante : comment les collectivités ont répondu à la question croissante de matières premières minérales ? Pouvaient-elles être utilisées par un seul groupe ? Obligeaient-elles à une série d'échanges et de relations sociales complexes ? Étaient-elles exploitées à des fins économiques ou liées au prestige social ? Nous ne négligeons pas pour autant certaines hypothèses en ce qui concerne les mines de cuivre et la première métallurgie qui se développe à la fin du Néolithique.The purpose of this project is to investigate the modalities of exploitation of mineral resources during the recent Prehistory in the Western Mediterranean area. The study starts to the observation of lithic instruments - macrolithic tools - produced by prehistoric human groups, and used in the extraction and processing phases. Studied through the morphological and techno-functional method, with low and high power microscope approach. I investigated all the stages of this activity and the complexity around mineral extraction. The steps of the "chaîne opératoire", from the identification of the sources of supply - of iron ore and copper - to the production of tools ; the search for lithic raw materials, extraction techniques, up to the early stages of mineral processing. The problem of the exploitation of copper and iron ore in prehistory is a theme currently discussed, because this activity has had a major effect on the organization of the production of prehistoric groups. I ask how communities have responded to the growing request of mineral raw materials, which could be used by a single group, or produce a series of complex social relationships for economic or social prestige purposes. I don’t neglect certain hypotheses regard to the copper mines and the first metallurgy that develops into the late Neolithic

Experimentation and traces analysis of macro-lithic tools. The cas of Grotta della Monaca Cave (San'Agata di Esaro-Cosenza, Italy)

Il contributo è finalizzato a descrivere i risultati della sperimentazione e della analisi funzionale relative allo studio di macro-lithic tools provenienti dalle fasi eneolitiche della Grotta della Monaca

I pugnali litici da Torre della Chiesaccia e Casetta Mistici (Roma). Analisi preliminare delle tracce d’uso

A Torre della Chiesaccia sono stati rinvenuti nella tomba 15 (n. 2 pugnali), tomba 7 (n. 1) e tomba 14 (n. 1). Da Casetta Mistici provengono due pugnali, uno proveniente dalla tomba 6 e uno dalla tomba 8. La materia prima utilizzata per la produzione dei pugnali è principalmente la selce, con la sola eccezione del pugnale proveniente dalla tomba 8 di Casetta Mistici, in diaspro/radiolarite. La morfologia e le dimensioni dei pugnali di Torre della Chiesaccia sono piuttosto varie. Sono presenti pugnali bifacciali e pugnali monofacciali lunghi tra i 18 e i 20 cm. Questi ultimi mostrano dei ritocchi anche sulla faccia ventrale, ma localizzati esclusivamente sulla punta e sul codolo (tomba 15). Sempre a Torre della Chiesaccia sono presenti pugnali litici monofacciali lunghi 15 cm (tombe 7 e 14), di cui uno frammentato ritualmente in due parti in antico. In ultimo, da Casetta Mistici provengono due piccoli pugnali bifacciali lunghi circa 11 cm (Tab. 4.6. 1). I manufatti non presentano importanti alterazioni, ma esclusivamente delle leggere glossy che non inficiano tuttavia la diagnostica delle tracce d’uso. Solo in pochi casi, parti dell’oggetto sono coperte da una concrezione calcitica con aspetto globulare. I dati qui presentati sono del tutto preliminari e richiederanno ulteriori approfondimenti attraverso un’intensa attività sperimentale, attualmente in corso. Il progetto “EuroDag” prevede, infatti, la produzione di repliche sperimentali di pugnali utilizzati in diverse attività, dalla macellazione, alla lavorazione di materie dure animali, al trattamento di piante erbacee silicee, non silicee, e legnose

Breglia F., Caricola I., Larocca F., Marcrolithic tools for mining and primary processing of metal ores from the site of Grotta della Monaca (Calabria, Italy), in journal lithic studies

Grotta della Monaca is a karst cave located in Calabria, the southernmost region of the Italian peninsula. About half a kilometre deep, the cavern has drawn the attention of man since Paleolithic because of the abundance of metal ores in it (mainly iron hydroxides but also copper carbonates). These easily reachable minerals have been exploited during prehistory and especially between the late Neolithic and the early Copper Age. Research conducted within the site from 2000 to 2012 has allowed us to understand various aspects of the ancient mining activities and, at the same time, to reconstruct the basic steps of the operational chain connected to the procurement and to the first processing of such resources: from the choice of tools to the various extractive techniques adopted, from the disposal of mining debris to the early operations of ore processing. In this paper we focus on two categories of macrolithic tools: those used to extract minerals and those used for their first processing. The first group is composed by 51 artefacts divided into axes, hammers and pickaxes with central groove, found in the deeper areas of the cave corresponding to mining areas. Their morphological and dimensional variability indicates a significant functional diversification; furthermore, the choice of different very hard metamorphic rocks implies a high awareness in the selection of the raw materials used for making this implements. The second group includes 22 tools with different functions – mainly made of sandstone – classified as querns and grinder/crusher. They were found in an underground area adjacent to the entrance, characterized by large and comfortable spaces, with the widespread presence of natural light. A recent traceological study has clarified the function of such artefacts, used to grind mined blocks of iron hydroxides to obtain a powder. The multidisciplinary approach in studying mining tools from Grotta della Monaca (such as petrography, archaeological typology and traceology) has allowed us to gain important knowledge about their general characteristics

Prehistoric mining strategies and the use-wear analysis of experimental macrolithics implements

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An integrated approach based on archaeometry, use-wear analysis and experimental archaeology to investigate the function of a specific type of basin diffused in the Predynastic sites of lower Egypt (4th mill. BC)

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