An Overview of T Cell Subsets and Their Potential Use as Markers of Immunological Ageing

Abstract -Until recently, T cells were divided into two main categories, the helpers, expressing the CD4, and the cytotoxic, expressing the CD8 molecule. Their origin and differentiation have been well documented, leading to numerous discoveries and new therapies. But with time, immunologists identified T cell complexity. Step by step, scientists have identified more than ten different T cell subsets with their own lineage, role and specificity. For instance, the helpers T cells can now be divided at least into six subpopulations based on their general function. Additionally, each subset is further discriminated based on surface/intracellular markers. In addition of the classical T cells, T cells are specialized cells recognizing mainly phospho-antigens. All T cell differentiate after antigen recognition into different subsets of memory cells and ultimately may become senescent. In the present review we summarize the latest information about T cell development and differentiation as well as the particularities of each subset and discuss how this evolves over age

Markers of T-cell senescence and physical frailty: insights from Singapore Longitudinal Ageing Studies

10.1038/npjamd.2015.5npj Aging and Mechanisms of Disease1500

Influenza Vaccine-Induced Antibody Responses Are Not Impaired by Frailty in the Community-Dwelling Elderly With Natural Influenza Exposure

Background: Elderly adults over 65 years of age are recommended to receive seasonal influenza vaccination as they are at a higher risk of infection and its complications than the younger community. The elderly are often stratified according to frailty status where frail individuals are more susceptible to adverse health outcomes than their non-frail counterparts, however, it is not known whether immunity induced by influenza vaccination is impaired in the frail elderly.Study Design: Two hundred and five elderly subjects of Chinese ethnicity in Singapore (mean age 73.3 ± 5.3 years, 128 females and 77 males) were administered the recommended trivalent inactivated 2013–14 seasonal influenza vaccine (Vaxigrip™) containing A/H1N1, A/H3N2, and B strains. The elderly subjects were stratified into three groups according to Fried's frailty criteria (59 frail, 85 pre-frail, 61 robust) and were also ranked by Rockwood's frailty index (RFI). Statistical associations were evaluated between frailty status and pre- and post-vaccination antibody titres in sera measured by Hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) and microneutralization (MN) assays. Immunological responses across frailty strata were also studied in terms of leukocyte cellular distribution, cytokine levels and gene expression.Results: Post-vaccination, 83.4% of the subjects seroconverted for A/H1N1, 80.5% for A/H3N2, and 81% for the B strain. The seroconversion rates were comparable across frailty groups (A/H1N1, ANOVA, p = 0.7910; A/H3N2, ANOVA, p = 0.8356, B, ANOVA, p = 0.9741). Geometric mean titres of HAI and MN as well as seroprotection rates were also similar in all three frailty groups and uncorrelated with RFI (Spearman, r = 0.023, p = 0.738). No statistically significant differences were observed between the frailty groups in vaccine-induced modulation of leukocyte populations, cytokine responses, and gene expression profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Whereas, post- and pre-vaccination HAI titres were positively correlated after adjusting for age and gender (A/H1N1, R2 = 0.216, p = 9.1e−11; A/H3N2, R2 = 0.166, p = 3.4e−8; B, R2 = 0.104, p = 3.1e−5). With most subjects lacking previous history of influenza vaccination, the pre-vaccination titres were likely due to natural exposure and seen to match the pattern of influenza subtype prevalence in the time period of vaccination.Conclusion: The majority of the elderly subjects seroconverted for seasonal influenza upon vaccination, and importantly, influenza vaccination-induced humoral immune responses and seroprotection were similar across the frailty strata, indicating that frail individuals may also benefit from influenza vaccination. Pre-existing antibodies due to natural exposure appeared to positively influence vaccine-induced antibody responses

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Evades NKG2D-Dependent NK Cell Responses through NS5A-Mediated Imbalance of Inflammatory Cytokines

Understanding how hepatitis C virus (HCV) induces and circumvents the host's natural killer (NK) cell-mediated immunity is of critical importance in efforts to design effective therapeutics. We report here the decreased expression of the NKG2D activating receptor as a novel strategy adopted by HCV to evade NK-cell mediated responses. We show that chronic HCV infection is associated with expression of ligands for NKG2D, the MHC class I-related Chain (MIC) molecules, on hepatocytes. However, NKG2D expression is downmodulated on circulating NK cells, and consequently NK cell-mediated cytotoxic capacity and interferon-γ production are impaired. Using an endotoxin-free recombinant NS5A protein, we show that NS5A stimulation of monocytes through Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4) promotes p38- and PI3 kinase-dependent IL-10 production, while inhibiting IL-12 production. In turn, IL-10 triggers secretion of TGFβ which downmodulates NKG2D expression on NK cells, leading to their impaired effector functions. Moreover, culture supernatants of HCV JFH1 replicating Huh-7.5.1 cells reproduce the effect of recombinant NS5A on NKG2D downmodulation. Exogenous IL-15 can antagonize the TGFβ effect and restore normal NKG2D expression on NK cells. We conclude that NKG2D-dependent NK cell functions are modulated during chronic HCV infection, and demonstrate that this alteration can be prevented by exogenous IL-15, which could represent a meaningful adjuvant for therapeutic intervention

Paramètres immunologiques dans les hépatites virales chroniques: évaluation des réponses lymphocytaires spécifiques CD4+ et CD8+ au cours de l'hépatite virale chronique C

About 200 million people are infected by hepatitis C virus worldwide. As the outcome of the disease may be hepatocellular carcinoma, it is the main cause of liver transplantations in the world. When you are infected by HCV, you are in the acute phase of the disease. It's generally asymptomatic and approximately 30% of infected patients resolve the infection spontaneously. Others will become HCV chronic carriers and may develop fibrosis which may evolute in cirrhosis. At this stage, there is an additional 3% per year risk to develop hepatocellular carcinoma. There is still no preventive vaccine. The standard therapy is a combination of pegylated IFN and ribavirin and is only effective in 50% cases of genotype 1 infected patients. Nowadays, we still don't know clearly how this therapy works during chronic phase. The objectives of this work were to study a various panel of cell populations, in peripheral blood and in the liver, during chronic hepatitis C to evaluate treatment impacts on these. We finely characterized the populations of NK cells, which are known to potentially play an important role during the disease and to undergo heavy viral pressures. We also studied predictive immunological parameters able to indicate to clinicians which patients develop a sustained virological response and what cell populations product IFN before treatment. We have studied a variety of immunological parameters before, during, under and 6 months after a hepatitis C therapy to try to conclude on immunological impact of combination IFN and ribavirin. Finally, we decided to characterize and localize intrahepatic and peripheral TReg during hepatitis C. To achieve our goals, we used a wide range of technologies. We studied cellular phenotype by 4-colors flow cytometry, measured gene of interest expression by RT-PCR, quantified IFN secretion against HCV proteins by elispot and dosed cytokines secreted against HCV peptides by CBA. We worked in collaboration with the "département d'hépatogastroentérologie du CHU de Grenoble " which supplied blood samples and liver biopsies we needed. We first studied peripheral and intrahepatic NK cells population as well as correlations between their phenotype, frequencies and clinical parameters in chronic hepatitis C patients. We used healthy and hepatitis B controls. We found an increase of the of the cytotoxic/secretive NK cells ratio during hepatitis C. Two particular populations of NK cells were identified. One correlated to viral control, CD3-CD56dimNKG2A+, and the other with hepatic lesions, CD3-CD56brightNKG23A+. Our study on pretreatment predictive immunological parameters found that basal expression of IFN is positively correlated to a sustained virological response. Moreover, this expression is significatively higher in chronical HCV carriers compared to healthy controls. Then, we investigated the type of cells producing IFN and we found that it was TNK cells. Following this, we monitored T cells response during therapy. We evaluated the activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells through CD25 (IL-2R) expression, their IFN secretion against HCV peptides with elispot, ISG expression using RT-PCR and the evolutions of their phenotype, including NK's and TNK's, by flow cytometry. Biological sample were obtained from a clinical trial funded by ANRS in collaboration with the hepato-gastroenterology department at the Grenoble hospital, Gammatri project. This consisted of adding IFN to the classical therapy to improve its response rate. We have had regular blood samples before, during and 6 months after the end of therapy. Our results showed that therapy didn't improve the response of HCV specific T cells neither increased it. In contrast, it rather suppressed T cells response, maybe to let T cells- independent mechanisms work. We also developed an in vitro culture system with HCV proteins which let us measure the direct impact of molecules on the subpopulations of HCV specific T cells. We used it with PBMC from non treated patients cultured with physiological doses of IFNand ribavirin. The only population responding positively to treatment by secreting IFN was TNK and only during the very first hours in culture. Finally, we studied the regulatory T cell (TReg) to determine their location and roles during the disease. We didn't found any correlation between TReg frequencies and viral load, so it seems that TReg didn't inhibit HCV specific T cells. They are colocalized in CD8 infiltrates and may participate in hepatic preservation by inhibiting cytotoxic cells by direct contact. This protective effect only lasts until fibrosis reach the A2/F3 grade. Beyond, TReg lose their effect and this fact may be a cause of the onset of cirrhosis. To conclude, the influence of virus on the immunity of its host is extremely complex and involves a larger number of factors. In our study, we showed that cells with the better potential in virus control were CD3-CD56dimNKG2A+ NK cells, negatively correlated with viral load, and TNK, responding positively to therapy. It is necessary to study in details for the developments of the immunotherapy in the future. Moreover, it will be interesting to maintain TReg activity beyond A2/F3 grade to prevent the formation of cirrhotic lesions. The measure of IFN expression before the treatment may be a good predicator of sustained viral response and provide better care for patients.L'hépatite virale C est une maladie touchant aujourd'hui aux alentours de 200 millions de personnes dans le monde. C'est la première cause mondiale de greffe hépatique puisque son issue peut être le développement d'un hépatocarcinome. La maladie se déroule en 2 phases, une aigue, asymptomatique, dont environ 30% des maladies guérissent spontanément. Les autres vont voir leur maladie devenir chronique, avec installation d'une fibrose, puis d'une cirrhose et enfin un risque de 3% supplémentaires par an de développer un cancer du foie. Il n'existe à ce jour aucun vaccin préventif. Le traitement standard utilisé est une combinaison d'interféron alpha pégylé et de ribavirine et n'est efficace que dans 50% des cas pour le génotype 1, majoritaire. A ce jour, les mécanismes d'action du traitement lors de la phase chroniques sont très flous. Les objectifs de ce travail ont été d'étudier un panel varié de populations cellulaires périphériques et intrahépatiques au cours de l'hépatite C chronique afin notamment d'en évaluer les impacts causés par le traitement. Nous avons étudié finement les populations de cellules NK qui sont connues pour avoir certainement un rôle important dans la pathologie ainsi que pour subir de lourdes pressions du virus. Nous avons aussi étudié des facteurs immunitaires avant traitement potentiellement capables de nous indiquer quels malades répondront favorablement à la thérapie et quelles cellules produisaient de l'IFN en phase prétraitement. Nous avons étudié une multitude de paramètres immunologiques durant toutes les phases d'un traitement, avant pendant et 6, mois après, afin de pouvoir conclure sur les effets immunologiques de la bithérapie IFN+ribavirine. Enfin nous avons voulu caractériser et élucider la localisation et les rôles exacts des cellules T régulatrices périphériques et intrahépatiques au cours de l'hépatite C. Afin d'atteindre les buts que nous nous étions fixé, nous avons utilisé une assez vaste combinaison de technologies. Nous avons étudié les phénotypes des cellules par cytométrie de flux en 4 couleurs, mesuré l'expression d'une grande variété de gènes d'intérêts par RT-PCR, mesuré la sécrétion d'IFN spécifique du virus par elispot et enfin la sécrétion d'un panel de 6 cytokines de profil Th1 par CBA. Nous avons travaillé en étroite collaboration avec le département d'hépatogastroentérologie du CHU de Grenoble qui nous a fourni les échantillons sanguins et les biopsies hépatiques dont nous avions besoin. Nous avons tout d'abord étudié les populations NK intrahépatiques et périphériques ainsi que les corrélations entre leurs fréquences, leur phénotype et les paramètres cliniques. Cette étude a été réalise sur des malades chroniques d'hépatite C, mais aussi des témoins sains et atteints d'hépatite B chronique afin d'en extraire les impacts virus-spécifiques. Nous avons trouvé une augmentation du ratio NK cytotoxiques/NK sécrétrices lors de l'hépatite virale C. Nous avons pu mettre en lumière 2 sous-population particulières de NK, l'une associées au contrôle du virus, CD3-CD56dimNKG2A+, et l'autre a contrario associée aux lésions hépatiques, CD3-CD56brightNKG23A+. Notre étude sur les facteurs prétraitement prédictifs de la réponse thérapeutique a permis de déterminer le taux basal d'expression de l'IFN comme étant corrélé positivement à la réponse au traitement. De plus, il est significativement plus élevé chez les malades chroniques que chez les contrôles sains. Nous avons voulu ensuite savoir dans quel type cellulaire il était exprimé chez les futurs répondeurs. Nous en avons conclu que les cellules productrices d'IFN avant thérapie étaient les lymphocytes TNK. Nous avons ensuite suivi la réponse immunitaire T au cours du traitement contre l'hépatite C. Nous avons mesuré l'activation des lymphocytes T CD4+ et CD8+ via l'expression du récepteur CD25 (IL-2R), leur sécrétion d'interféron en présence de peptides viraux par le biais de la technique de l'elispot, l'expression des gènes antiviraux induits par les IFNs par RT-PCR et les évolutions de leur phénotype, en plus de celui des cellules NK, par cytométrie en flux. Pour se faire, nous avons eut accès à une cohorte de malades issus d'un essai clinique financé par l'ANRS en collaboration avec le département d'hépatogastroentérologie du CHU de Grenoble, le projet Gammatri. Celui-ci consistait en l'évaluation de l'impact de l'ajout d'interféron en injection pour des patients non-répondeurs à la thérapie classique. Nous avons pu avoir des prélèvements sanguins réguliers des malades avant, pendant les 48 semaines de traitement et après un suivi à la semaine 72, d'où nous avons extrait les cellules mononuclées. Nous avons déduits de cette étude que le traitement n'augmentait pas ni n'améliorait la réponse immunitaire spécifiques au VHC. Au contraire, il semble l'annuler, certainement pour laisser le temps à d'éventuels mécanismes indépendants des cellules de l'immunité adaptative de se mettre en fonctions. Nous avons également mis au point un système de culture de lymphocytes en présence de protéines virales permettant de mesurer l'impact direct de molécules sur la réponse spécifique au virus. Ce système a été utilisé sur des cellules de malades non traités, mises en présence d'IFN et de ribavirine à des doses proches des doses reçues in vivo lors du traitement par les cellules intrahépatiques. Dans ce cadre là, les techniques de PCR, de cytométrie en flux et d'elispot nous ont permis d'observer les modifications cellulaires induites par les molécules ajoutées. En étudiant les effets de l'interféron et de la ribavirine sur les cellules T CD4+ et CD8+ et les cellules NK et TNK. Nous avons pu montrer que le traitement régulait négativement toutes les populations cellulaires testées à l'exception des cellules TNK, et ce seulement aux tout débuts de la culture. Enfin, nous avons étudié les lymphocytes T régulateurs (TReg) pour déterminer leur localisation et leurs rôles durant la maladie. Il s'est avéré que les TReg n'influençaient pas la charge virale, donc à priori n'inhibaient pas les cellules effectrices spécifiques du virus. En revanche, ils sont colocalisés dans les infiltrats hépatiques CD8+ et participent à la protection du foie des lésions en inhibant les cellules cytotoxiques par contact direct. Ceci ne dure néanmoins pas très longtemps puisqu'au-delà d'un certaine état de fibrose (>Metavir A2/F3), les TReg n'ont plus aucun contrôle sur les lésions hépatique, ce qui pourrait être l'une des causes de l'apparition de la cirrhose. Pour conclure, l'influence du virus sur l'immunité de son hôte est extrêmement complexe et fait intervenir un très grand nombre de facteurs. De notre étude, il en est ressorti que les cellules ayant le plus de potentiel dans le contrôle du virus, et donc devraient être prioritairement ciblées par les futures thérapies, sont les cellules NK CD3-CD56dimNKG2A+, corrélées négativement avec la charge virale, et les lymphocytes TNK, étant les seuls à répondre positivement à la thérapie par une sécrétion d'IFN. De plus, il serait nécessaire d'entretenir l'activité des cellules TReg intrahépatiques au-delà du stade A2/F3 pour empêcher la formation de lésions cirrhotiques menant au cancer du foie. Enfin, la mesure du taux d'expression de l'IFN avant traitement pourrait être un bon prédicateur de la réponse thérapeutique et ainsi permettre de mieux prendre en charge les malades

A: NK cells in healthy aging and age-associated diseases

NK cells exhibit the highest cytotoxic capacity within the immune system. Alteration of their number or functionality may have a deep impact on overall immunity. This is of particular relevance in aging where the elderly population becomes more susceptible to infection, cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases amongst others. As the fraction of elderly increases worldwide, it becomes urgent to better understand the aging of the immune system to prevent and cure the elderly population. For this, a better understanding of the function and phenotype of the different immune cells and their subsets is necessary. We review here NK cell functions and phenotype in healthy aging as well as in various age-associated diseases

Frequency and occurrence of late-gestation losses from cattle cloned embryos

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Fine characterization of intrahepatic NK cells expressing natural killer receptors in chronic hepatitis B and C.: NK cells in chronic hepatitis C and hepatitis B

International audienceBACKGROUND/AIMS: The fate of intrahepatic NK cell subsets in the course of HCV and HBV infections is not clearly understood. METHODS: Blood and intrahepatic CD56(+) NK cell subsets (expressing NKG2A, CD158a,h or CD158b,j receptors) from HCV or HBV patients were quantified by flow cytometry and localized by immunohistochemistry in liver biopsies. RESULTS: A significant reduction in NK cell frequency and a quantitative imbalance between CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) subsets were observed in chronic HCV patients as compared to HBV patients, underlining that the inflammatory environment is not the only cause of these phenomena. The proportions of intrahepatic NK cells expressing either NKG2A, and/or CD158a,h, CD158b,j differed significantly between HCV and HBV patients. A higher frequency of perforin among intrahepatic CD56(+)CD3(-) cells was observed in HCV compared to HBV patients. Double immunohistochemical staining showed that CD56(+)CD3(-) cells were localized within necrotic areas. Immune monitoring of circulating CD56 subsets revealed that CD3(-)CD56(bright)NKG2A(+) and CD3(-)CD56(dim)NKG2A(+) cells were positively correlated with the necroinflammatory score and inversely correlated with viral load, respectively, in HCV patients. CONCLUSIONS: HCV and HBV affect NK cell subsets according to the status of the diseases, especially CD3(-)CD56(dim)NKG2A(+) and CD3(-)CD56(bright)NKG2A(+) cells, may be of interest for disease monitoring

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Additional file 1:  Tables SDC1, SDC2 and SDC3

Characterization and role of intra-hepatic regulatory T cells in chronic hepatitis C pathogenesis.: Regulatory T cells in chronic hepatitis C

International audienceBACKGROUND & AIMS: In chronic hepatitis C (CHC), HCV-specific T-cell responses are often dysfunctionnal. In vitro data point out that regulatory T cells (Treg) are able to suppress HCV-specific lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine secretion but their implication in this pathology is still debated. METHODS: Three complementary approaches were performed to investigate phenotype, frequency or localization of intra-hepatic Treg in treatment naïve CHC patients. Double immunohistochemical analysis was performed in 20 formalin-fixed biopsies with CD8/FoxP3 and CD4/FoxP3 antibodies. Cellular markers and cytokines were investigated by quantitative RT-PCR in 27 additional frozen biopsies. Eight other fresh liver biopsies were selected for complementary analysis of immunophenotyping and frequency of intra-hepatic Treg. RESULTS: Immunohistochemical analyses showed the presence of intra-hepatic CD4(+)FoxP3(+)T cells while CD8(+)FoxP3(+)T cells were very scarce. CD4(+)FoxP3(+)T cells were located in necro-inflammatory areas in contact with CD8(+)T cells, suggesting that Treg-mediated inhibition of CD8(+)T cell proliferation may occur by cell-cell contact. RT-PCR analyses showed strong correlations between CD8, FoxP3, and IL-10 with emergence of four distinct gene clusters, CD8-FoxP3, CD8-IL-10, TGF-beta-IL-10, and TNF-alpha-TGF-beta. No correlation was found between serum viral load and any immune markers. Interestingly, the FoxP3(+)/CD8(+) cells ratio significantly decreased in severe fibrosis (F>3) due to the dramatic decline of FoxP3 cells. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides new insights into the histological localization of Treg within HCV-infected liver, with a special accumulation of CD4(+)FoxP3(+)Treg cells in necro-inflammatory areas, in contact with CD8(+)T cells. Our results suggest a link between Treg, CD8, and IL-10 which altogether could balance immune responses against the virus to avoid immunopathogenesis