Tailoring agroforestry technologies to the diversity of Rwandan smallholder agriculture

Keywords: food security, biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, farmer resource groups, productivity, economic evaluation, scenario analysis Smallholder livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa(SSA) are constrained by a number of factors that limit food production and thereby threaten food security. Soil fertility is one of the major factors explaining the decrease in per capita food production in SSA. Nutrient deficiencies in particular N and P severely limit agricultural production in many regions in the tropics. Supply of adequate amounts of nutrients throughfertiliserapplication is therefore a prerequisite to balance soil fertility budgets and to boost food production. However, mineral fertilisers are not accessible to the large majority of smallholder farmers. Farmyard manure, an important source of organic fertiliser for smallholder farmers, is available at limited quantities due to low livestock densities in many regions, for example Rwanda. Agroforestry, a low-input technology, was shown to contribute to the enhancement of food production while ensuring sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa.Agroforestry may contribute to soil fertility by increasing nutrient availability and providing other various benefits and services. However, to be successful agroforestry technologies need to match the characteristics of different smallholder farming systems, like for example soil fertility status, socioeconomic status and farmer management. These factors are rarely studied in an integrated manner. This thesis aims to understand and characterise different farming systems, evaluate the potential for the most promising agroforestry practices and suggest the most suitable agroforestry recommendations for different farming systems in targeted agro-ecological zones of Rwanda. The approach combined characterization of farming systems, participatory tree testing, farmer’s evaluations of technologies, and scenario and trade-off analyses in two agro-ecological zones: Central Plateau (moderate altitude) and Buberuka (high altitude zone). Two locations, Simbi and Kageyo sectors were selected as representative study sites. Wealth ranking techniques allowed the identification of three farm resource groups (RGs). Though three farmer classes were identified in the two locations and referred as RG 1, RG 2 and RG 3 respectively, farmer classes were unique to each location. Averaged over sampled villages, 76% of all households belong to RG 1 class in Simbi versus 67% in Kageyo. This least resourced group with on average 0.20 ha of land and with 1 goat wasthe most vulnerable farmer groupin terms of food security (20 to 25% protein deficient).RG 2 (9 to 31%) was intermediate between RG 1 and RG 3. RG 3 (2 to 7 %) was the wealthiest (1 to 3 ha, 2 or more cattle) and food-secure for at least 10 months. Soil nutrient balances were negative in most farms due to small amounts of nutrients applied, which did not compensate for nutrient removal during harvest. From an agroforestry perspective, Simbi contrasted with Kageyo in tree diversity and density but tree niches and management were similar between the locations. The main agroforestry species may becategorisedinto three classes including timber, legume and fruit tree species based on the main functions. The results clearly indicated the need to improve soil fertility and food production using integrated soil fertility approaches that promote a combined use of agroforestry resources and other fertiliser sources to replenish the soil nutrients and improve the efficiency and cost effectiveness of inputs use at farm level. Experiments evaluated the potential effects of agroforestry species on production within different farming systems. Tephrosia species were tested as a source of mulch in coffee plantations in the Central Plateau agro-ecological zone. Application of Tephrosia mulch resulted in higher biomass and better economic returns when established in coffee fields, particularly when Tephrosiamulch was combined with NPK. Application of prunings of Calliandra increased maize productivity, net returns and the ratio between gross margin and costs of inputs on all farms except the richest farms. This positive effect of Calliandra was larger in Kageyo than in Simbi. The effect was even more pronounced with P application. The results indicated that fields responded differently within farms, and significant differences between locations were present. The assessment of fodder availability within different farming systems revealed that animal feeds are widely diversified, with Pennisetum being largely used in wealthier farms (RG 3), while RG 1 farmers use larger quantities of marshland-herbs and crop residues.There was a strong variation in seasonal feed availability. Napier and Calliandra were more available during the wet season, while banana pseudo-stems were used more in the dry seasons. Quantification of the year-round fodder availability showed that RG 1 farmers are unable to keep a cow, while RG 2 and RG 3 could keep local or improved cows under specific scenarios. Biophysical (rainfall, field type) and socio-economic conditions (wealth status) as well as farmer preferences were factors influencing the choice and performance of agroforestry technologies. The study recommends revisiting current agroforestry research policies and taking into account farmer’s preferences as priorities in the agroforestry research agenda. </p

Assessment of aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination levels in maize and mycotoxins awareness and risk factors in Rwanda

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that are toxic to humans and animals when consumed in contaminated food and feed. The Rwandan climate conditions like steady temperature and sufficient rainfall favor the growth of fungi leading to high probability of mycotoxins contamination. Mycotoxins get into maize throughout the value chain from the field to processed products. Maize is&nbsp; promoted in Rwanda under the Crop Intensification Program (CIP), for nutrition and food security. The aim of the study was to evaluate mycotoxins (Aflatoxin and fumonisin) levels in maize and assess awareness and factors associated with mycotoxin contamination in Rwanda. Maize samples (227 kg) from season B 2019 were collected in 15 Districts in five provinces of Rwanda after an interview with a representative of the household or cooperative using a structured questionnaire. The samples were analyzed for aflatoxin and&nbsp; fumonisin using Reveal Q+ and AccuScan Gold Reader. From the interview, most of the respondents were not aware about aflatoxin (59.7 %) and 99 % did not know the effect of mycotoxins on human health. The average of aflatoxin contamination in surveyed districts was 6.69±13 μg/kg. In general, 90.4 % of samples scored below the limit of aflatoxin level regulated in East Africa/Kenya regulation standards (10 μg/kg). The levels of aflatoxin ranged between 0 and 100.9 μg/kg. The means aflatoxin levels within districts ranged between 1.36±0.5 μg/kg and 13.75±25 μg/kg. Among 9.6 % of the samples containing aflatoxins above the EU and Kenyan regulations standard limit, 5.7 % were above the US standards of 20 μg/kg. Within clusters, the level of aflatoxin more than 10 μg/kg was 5 %, 7 % and 18 % for stores, household and market samples, respectively. From the study, as mechanical damage of grains, moisture content of grains and the temperature of the store house increased, Aflatoxin level also increased. Fumonisin analyzed in maize ranged from 0 to 2.3 μg/g and only one sample from market showed a slightly higher level of fumonisin than the EU and US limit of 2 μg/g. More effort for aflatoxin mitigation is needed at the market level. Farmers need to be aware and taught how they can improve their agricultural system and more knowledge on mycotoxin control is needed. The results point to appropriate measures to recommend for control ofmycotoxins in Rwanda and awareness creation. Key words: AccuScan, Aflatoxin, Fumonisin, Fungal, Maize, Mycotoxins, Reveal Q+, Rwand

New Antenatal Model in Africa and India (NAMAI) study: implementation research to improve antenatal care using WHO recommendations

Background: In 2020, an estimated 287 000 women died globally from pregnancy‐related causes and 2 million babies were stillborn. Many of these outcomes can be prevented by quality healthcare during pregnancy and childbirth. Within the continuum of maternal health, antenatal care (ANC) is a key moment in terms of contact with the health system, yet it remains an underutilized platform. This paper describes the protocol for a study conducted in collaboration with Ministries of Health and country research partners that aims to employ implementation science to systematically introduce and test the applicability of the adapted WHO ANC package in selected sites across four countries. Methods: Study design is a mixed methods stepped-wedge cluster randomized implementation trial with a nested cohort component (in India and Burkina Faso). The intervention is composed of two layers: (i) the country- (or state)-specific ANC package, including evidence-based interventions to improve maternal and newborn health outcomes, and (ii) the co-interventions (or implementation strategies) to help delivery and uptake of the adapted ANC package. Using COM-B model, co-interventions support behaviour change among health workers and pregnant women by (1) training health workers on the adapted ANC package and ultrasound (except in India), (2) providing supplies, (3) conducting mentoring and supervision and (4) implementing community mobilization strategies. In Rwanda and Zambia, a fifth strategy includes a digital health intervention. Qualitative data will be gathered from health workers, women and their families, to gauge acceptability of the adapted ANC package and its components, as well as experience of care. The implementation of the adapted ANC package of interventions, and their related costs, will be documented to understand to what extent the co-interventions were performed as intended, allowing for iteration. Discussion: Results from this study aim to build the global evidence base on how to implement quality ANC across different settings and inform pathways to scale, which will ultimately lead to stronger health systems with better maternal and perinatal outcomes. On the basis of the study results, governments will be able to adopt and plan for national scale-up, aiming to improve ANC nationally. This evidence will inform global guidance. Trial registration number: ISRCTN, ISRCTN16610902. Registered 27 May 2022. https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN16610902

A research agenda to improve incidence and outcomes of assisted vaginal birth.

Access to emergency obstetric care, including assisted vaginal birth and caesarean birth, is crucial for improving maternal and childbirth outcomes. However, although the proportion of births by caesarean section has increased during the last few decades, the use of assisted vaginal birth has declined. This is particularly the case in low- and middle-income countries, despite an assisted vaginal birth often being less risky than caesarean birth. We therefore conducted a three-step process to identify a research agenda necessary to increase the use of, or reintroduce, assisted vaginal birth: after conducting an evidence synthesis, which informed a consultation with technical experts who proposed an initial research agenda, we sought and incorporated the views of women's representatives of this agenda. This process has allowed us to identify a comprehensive research agenda, with topics categorized as: (i) the need to understand women's perceptions of assisted vaginal birth, and provide appropriate and reliable information; (ii) the importance of training health-care providers in clinical skills but also in respectful care, effective communication, shared decision-making and informed consent; and (iii) the barriers to and facilitators of implementation and sustainability. From women's feedback, we learned of the urgent need to recognize labour, childbirth and postpartum experiences as inherently physiological and dignified human processes, in which interventions should only be implemented if necessary. The promotion and/or reintroduction of assisted vaginal birth in low-resource settings requires governments, policy-makers and hospital administrators to support skilled health-care providers who can, in turn, respectfully support women in labour and childbirth

Impact of maternal ART on mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV at six weeks postpartum in Rwanda

BACKGROUND: In 2010, Rwanda adopted ART for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV from pregnant women living with HIV during pregnancy and breasfeeding period. This study examines rates of mother-to-childtransmission of HIV at 6–10 weeks postpartum and risk factors for mother-to-child transmission of HIV (MTCT) among HIV infected women on ART during pregnancy and breastfeeding. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey study was conducted between July 2011–June 2012 among HIV-exposed infants aged 6–10 weeks and their mothers/caregivers. Stratified multi-stage, probability proportional to size and systematic sampling to select a national representative sample of clients. Consenting mothers/caregivers were interviewed on demographic and program interventions. Dry blood spots from HIV-exposed infants were collected for HIV testing using DNA PCR technique. Results are weighted for sample realization. Univariable analysis of socio-demographic and programmatic determinants of early mother-to-child transmission of HIV was conducted. Variables were retained for final multivariable models if they were either at least of marginal significance (p-value < 0.10) or played a confounding role (the variable had a noticeable impact > 10% change on the effect estimate). RESULTS: The study sample was 1639 infants with HIV test results. Twenty-six infants were diagnosed HIV-positive translating to a weighted MTCT estimate of 1.58% (95% CI 1.05–2.37%). Coverage of most elimination of MTCT (EMTCT) program interventions, was above 80, and 90.4% of mother-infant pairs received antiretroviral treatment or prophylaxis. Maternal ART and infant antiretroviral prophylaxis (OR 0.01; 95%CI 0.001–0.17) and maternal age older than 25 years were significantly protective (OR 0.33; 95%CI 0.14–0.78). No disclosure of HIV status, not testing for syphilis during pregnancy and preterm birth were significant risk factors for MTCT. Factors suggesting higher sociodemographic status (flush toilet, mother self-employed) were borderline risk factors for MTCT. CONCLUSION: ART for all women during pregnancy and breastfeeding was associated with the estimated low MTCT rate of 1.58%. Mothers who did not receive a full package of anti-retroviral therapy according to the Rwanda EMTCT protocol, and young and single mothers were at higher risk of MTCT and should be targeted for support in preventing HIV infection

A research agenda to improve incidence and outcomes of assisted vaginal birth

Access to emergency obstetric care, including assisted vaginal birth and caesarean birth, is crucial for improving maternal and childbirth outcomes. However, although the proportion of births by caesarean section has increased during the last few decades, the use of assisted vaginal birth has declined. This is particularly the case in low- and middle-income countries, despite an assisted vaginal birth often being less risky than caesarean birth. We therefore conducted a three-step process to identify a research agenda necessary to increase the use of, or reintroduce, assisted vaginal birth: after conducting an evidence synthesis, which informed a consultation with technical experts who proposed an initial research agenda, we sought and incorporated the views of women's representatives of this agenda. This process has allowed us to identify a comprehensive research agenda, with topics categorized as: (i) the need to understand women's perceptions of assisted vaginal birth, and provide appropriate and reliable information; (ii) the importance of training health-care providers in clinical skills but also in respectful care, effective communication, shared decision-making and informed consent; and (iii) the barriers to and facilitators of implementation and sustainability. From women's feedback, we learned of the urgent need to recognize labour, childbirth and postpartum experiences as inherently physiological and dignified human processes, in which interventions should only be implemented if necessary. The promotion and/or reintroduction of assisted vaginal birth in low-resource settings requires governments, policy-makers and hospital administrators to support skilled health-care providers who can, in turn, respectfully support women in labour and childbirth. [Abstract copyright: (c) 2023 The authors; licensee World Health Organization.

Managing Tephrosia mulch and fertilizer to enhance coffee productivity on smallholder farms in the Eastern African Highlands

In Maraba, Southwest Rwanda, coffee productivity is constrained by poor soil fertility and lack of organic mulch. We investigated the potential to produce mulch by growing Tephrosia vogelii either intercropped with smallholder coffee or in arable fields

Managing Tephrosia mulch and fertilizer to enhance coffee productivity on smallholder farms in the Eastern African highlands

In Maraba, Southwest Rwanda, coffee productivity is constrained by poor soil fertility and lack of organic mulch. We investigated the potential to produce mulch by growing Tephrosia vogelii either intercropped with smallholder coffee or in arable fields outside the coffee, and the effect of the mulch on coffee yields over two years. Two accessions of T. vogelii (ex. Gisagara, Rwanda and ex. Kisumu, Kenya) were grown for six months both within and outside smallholder coffee fields in the first year. Experimental blocks were replicated across eight smallholder farms, only a single replicate per farm due to the small farm sizes. The accession from Rwanda (T. vogelii ex. Gisagara) grew more vigorously in all experiments. Soils within the coffee fields were more fertile those outside the coffee fields, presumably due to farmers’ long-term management with mulch. Tephrosia grew less well in the fields outside coffee, producing only 0.6–0.7 Mg ha?1 of biomass and adding (in kg ha?1) 19 N, 1 P and 6 K in the mulch. By contrast, Tephrosia intercropped with coffee, produced 1.4–1.9 Mg ha?1 of biomass and added (in kg ha?1) 42–57 N, 3 P and 13–16 K in the mulch. Coffee yields were increased significantly by 400–500 kg ha?1 only in the treatments where Tephrosia was intercropped with coffee. Soil analysis and a missing-nutrient pot experiment showed that the poor growth of Tephrosia in the fields outside coffee was due to soil acidity (aluminium toxicity) combined with deficiencies of P, K and Ca. In the second year, the treatments in fields outside coffee were discontinued, and in the coffee intercrops, two Tephrosia accessions were grown in treatments with and without NPK fertilizer. Tephrosia grew well and produced between 2.5 and 3.8 Mg ha?1 biomass for the two accessions when interplanted within coffee fields, adding 103–150 kg N ha?1, 5–9 kg P ha?1 and 24–38 kg K ha?1. Tephrosia mulch increased yields of coffee by 400 kg ha?1. Combined use of NPK + Tephrosia mulch increased Tephrosia biomass production and in turn yielded an additional 300–700 kg ha?1 of coffee. Over the two years, this was equivalent to a 23–36% increase in coffee yield using Tephrosia intercropping alone and a further 25–42% increase in coffee yield when NPK fertilizer was also added. Agronomic efficiency (AE) of nutrients added were 30% greater when the Tephrosia mulch was grown in situ and the two cultivars of Tephrosia did not differ in AE. The AE of Tephrosia mulch was 87% that of NPK fertilizer, reflecting the rapid mineralization of Tephrosia mulch. There was a synergistic effect of Tephrosia mulch on the efficiency with which NPK fertilizer was used by coffee. The increase in coffee yields was positively related to the amount of nutrients added in the Tephrosia biomass. Tephrosia intercropping required 30 man-days ha?1 less than current farmer management due to reduced labour required for weeding, and benefit–cost ratios ranged between 3.4 and 5.5. The Tephrosia-coffee intercropping system offers great potential for agroecological intensification for smallholder farmers in the East African highlands

Caractérisation physique, chimique et microbiologique de trois sols acides tropicaux du Rwanda sous jachères naturelles et contraintes à leur productivité

Physical, chemical and microbiological characterization of three tropical acidic soils of Rwanda under natural fallows and productivity constraints. Three acidic soils of highland (HL), middle land (ML) and lowland (LL) from Rwanda were sampled respectively in the experimental stations of Gakuta, Tonga and Cyabayaga for a physical, chemical and microbiological characterization in order to determine their productivity constraints. Soils are strongly acidic in the HL and ML (pH 4.1 and 4.7) and moderately acidic in LL (pH 5.5). The rate of total organic carbon (Corg) is acceptable in Gakuta (4.5%), but decreases with altitude. The total nitrogen (Ntot), the phosphorus and the effective cation exchange capacity follow the same trend, their levels remaining nevertheless weak. Base saturation and Bray2-P content are weak in the HL and ML, but also they are negatively correlated with Corg content. The Al3+ ion occupies 32 and 18% of the exchange complex at Gakuta and Tonga, and is non-existent in Cyabayaga soils. Carbon microbial biomass (Cmic : Corg) and nitrogen microbial biomass (Nmic : Ntot) ratios indicate a weak mineralization/immobilization rate in the highly acidic soils, and are positively correlated with soil pH. Cmic : Nmic ratio values obtained indicate a soil microbial population dominated by fungi, which predicts a poor organic matter (OM) quality. The small proportion of the assimilate carbon fraction at Gakuta (5% of Corg) testifies also to the OM poor quality. Basal respiration rate is very low (0.30 - 0.37 μg CO2 .h-1.g-1). The addition of glucose for the substrate inducedrespiration has considerably stimulated the metabolic activity, which results in low values of respiratory activation quotient(QR = 0.4-0.5). Dehydrogenase and acidic phosphatase activities are very low but positively correlated with Corg. The soil acidity remains the principal constraint to land productivity in the HL and ML regions while low soil OM and N contents would constitute a limitation in LL zone if appropriate land management practices are not used