Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia

Welfare is a fundamental aspect of animal management and conservation. In light of growing public awareness and welfare concerns about captive elephants, there is an urgent need for comprehensive, globally coordinated efforts for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) that participate in religious, logging, or tourist activities in range countries where the majority reside, and where welfare issues have been identified but not addressed. This review provides a comparative analysis of available animal assessment tools. Each offers distinct features for assessment that allow institutions to select criteria for specific needs and available resources. Most are applied to general animal welfare assessments, although some are tailored to particular species, including elephants. The tools span diverse formats, from digital to primarily paper-based assessments. Assessments operate at individual and institutional levels and across multiple welfare domains. Methodologies rely on keeper ratings or expert evaluations, incorporate numerical scoring and Likert scales for welfare grading, and encompass inputs including behaviors, health, and physiological indicators. For tourist camp elephants, one challenge is that the tools were developed in zoos, which may or may not have application to non-zoological settings. Digital tools and assessment methodologies such as keeper ratings face logistical challenges when applied across tourist venues. As with any tool, reliability, validity, and repeatability are essential and must address the unique welfare challenges of diverse captive settings. We propose that a holistic, context-specific, evidence-based, and practical tool be developed to ensure high elephant welfare standards in non-zoological facilities throughout Asia

The clinical effectiveness of different parenting programmes for children with conduct problems : a systematic review of randomised controlled trials

Background Conduct problems are common, disabling and costly. The prognosis for children with conduct problems is poor, with outcomes in adulthood including criminal behaviour, alcoholism, drug abuse, domestic violence, child abuse and a range of psychiatric disorders. There has been a rapid expansion of group based parent-training programmes for the treatment of children with conduct problems in a number of countries over the past 10 years. Existing reviews of parent training have methodological limitations such as inclusion of non-randomised studies, the absence of investigation for heterogeneity prior to meta-analysis or failure to report confidence intervals. The objective of the current study was to systematically review randomised controlled trials of parenting programmes for the treatment of children with conduct problems. Methods Standard systematic review methods were followed including duplicate inclusion decisions, data extraction and quality assessment. Twenty electronic databases from the fields of medicine, psychology, social science and education were comprehensively searched for RCTs and systematic reviews to February 2006. Inclusion criteria were: randomised controlled trial; of structured, repeatable parenting programmes; for parents/carers of children up to the age of 18 with a conduct problem; and at least one measure of child behaviour. Meta-analysis and qualitative synthesis were used to summarise included studies. Results 57 RCTs were included. Studies were small with an average group size of 21. Meta-analyses using both parent (SMD -0.67; 95% CI: -0.91, -0.42) and independent (SMD -0.44; 95% CI: -0.66, -0.23) reports of outcome showed significant differences favouring the intervention group. There was insufficient evidence to determine the relative effectiveness of different approaches to delivering parenting programmes. Conclusion Parenting programmes are an effective treatment for children with conduct problems. The relative effectiveness of different parenting programmes requires further research

Resistant starch consumption promotes lipid oxidation

BACKGROUND: Although the effects of resistant starch (RS) on postprandial glycemia and insulinemia have been extensively studied, little is known about the impact of RS on fat metabolism. This study examines the relationship between the RS content of a meal and postprandial/post-absorbative fat oxidation. RESULTS: 12 subjects consumed meals containing 0%, 2.7%, 5.4%, and 10.7% RS (as a percentage of total carbohydrate). Blood samples were taken and analyzed for glucose, insulin, triacylglycerol (TAG) and free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations. Respiratory quotient was measured hourly. The 0%, 5.4%, and 10.7% meals contained 50 μCi [1-(14)C]-triolein with breath samples collected hourly following the meal, and gluteal fat biopsies obtained at 0 and 24 h. RS, regardless of dose, had no effect on fasting or postprandial insulin, glucose, FFA or TAG concentration, nor on meal fat storage. However, data from indirect calorimetry and oxidation of [1-(14)C]-triolein to (14)CO(2 )showed that addition of 5.4% RS to the diet significantly increased fat oxidation. In fact, postprandial oxidation of [1-(14)C]-triolein was 23% greater with the 5.4% RS meal than the 0% meal (p = 0.0062). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that replacement of 5.4% of total dietary carbohydrate with RS significantly increased post-prandial lipid oxidation and therefore could decrease fat accumulation in the long-term

Serum health biomarkers in African and Asian elephants : value ranges and clinical values indicative of the immune response

CITATION: Edwards, Katie L. et al. 2020. Serum health biomarkers in African and Asian elephants : value ranges and clinical values indicative of the immune response. Animals, 10(10):1756, doi:10.3390/ani10101756.The original publication is available at: https://www.mdpi.comSerum biomarkers indicative of inflammation and disease can provide useful information regarding host immune processes, responses to treatment and prognosis. The aims of this study were to assess the use of commercially available anti-equine reagents for the quantification of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF- ), interferon-gamma (IFN- ), interleukins (IL) 2, 6, and 10) in African (Loxodonta africana, n = 125) and Asian (Elephas maximus, n = 104) elephants, and alongside previously validated anti-human reagents for acute-phase proteins (serum amyloid A and haptoglobin), calculate species-specific biomarker value ranges. In addition, we used opportunistically collected samples to investigate the concentrations of each biomarker during identified clinical cases of illness or injury, as a first step to understanding what biomarkers may be useful to managing elephant health. Immune biomarkers were each elevated above the calculated species-specific value ranges in at least one clinical case, but due to variability in both clinical and non-clinical samples, only serum amyloid A was significantly higher in clinical compared to non-clinical paired samples, with tendencies for higher TNF- and IL-10. We also detected increased secretion of serum amyloid A and all five cytokines following routine vaccination of a single Asian elephant, indicating that these biomarkers can be beneficial for studying normal immune processes as well as pathology. This study indicates that assays developed with commercial reagents can be used to quantify health biomarkers in wildlife species and identifies several that warrant further investigation to elucidate immune responses to various pathologies.Publisher's versio

Seasonal patterns of oxidative stress markers in captive Asian elephants in Thailand and relationships to elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus shedding

IntroductionOxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant activity and accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which can have detrimental effects on animal health. Annual fluctuations in oxidative stress status can occur, increasing disease susceptibility during certain time periods. However, a full understanding of factors related to oxidative stress in Asian elephants and how to mitigate the negative consequences is lacking.MethodsThis study measured six serum oxidative stress markers [reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), albumin, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase] and two stress markers [serum cortisol and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM)] in 23 captive Asian elephants in Thailand over a 12 months period to examine relationships with age and season.ResultsSeasonal variations were observed, with several markers exhibiting significantly higher concentrations in the summer (ROS, MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin) and lower values during the rainy/winter seasons (MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin, catalase). By contrast, GPx was the only marker to be highest during the rainy season. For the stress markers, higher fGCM concentrations were noted during the rainy season, which contrasts with earlier studies showing more activity in the winter (tourist season). Positive correlations were found between the temperature-humidity index and ROS, GPx, and fGCM, while a negative correlation was observed with serum albumin. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) shedding events were associated with higher concentrations of ROS and MDA. A moderate negative correlation was observed between 8-OHdG and the PCR threshold cycle of EEHV shedding (Ct), indicating DNA damage may be involved in EEHV shedding in elephants.DiscussionResults revealed significant age and seasonal effects on several oxidative stress markers, indicating those factors should be considered in study design and data interpretation. There also may be physiological adaptations in oxidative stress conditions in relation to environmental changes that could impact health outcomes

Lactotransferrin in Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Seminal Plasma Correlates with Semen Quality

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have highly variable ejaculate quality within individuals, greatly reducing the efficacy of artificial insemination and making it difficult to devise a sperm cryopreservation protocol for this endangered species. Because seminal plasma influences sperm function and physiology, including sperm motility, the objectives of this study were to characterize the chemistry and protein profiles of Asian elephant seminal plasma and to determine the relationships between seminal plasma components and semen quality. Ejaculates exhibiting good sperm motility (≥65%) expressed higher percentages of spermatozoa with normal morphology (80.3+-13.0 vs. 44.9+-30.8%) and positive Spermac staining (51.9+-14.5 vs. 7.5+-14.4%), in addition to higher total volume (135.1+-89.6 vs. 88.8+-73.1 ml) and lower sperm concentration (473.0+-511.2 vs. 1313.8+-764.7 x 106 cells ml-1) compared to ejaculates exhibiting poor sperm motility (≤10%; P\u3c0.05). Comparison of seminal plasma from ejaculates with good versus poor sperm motility revealed significant differences in concentrations of creatine phosphokinase, alanine aminotransferase, phosphorus, sodium, chloride, magnesium, and glucose. These observations suggest seminal plasma influences semen quality in elephants. One- and two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis revealed largely similar compositional profiles of seminal plasma proteins between good and poor motility ejaculates. However, a protein of ~80 kDa was abundant in 85% of ejaculates with good motility, and was absent in 90% of poor motility ejaculates (P\u3c0.05). We used mass spectrometry to identify this protein as lactotransferrin, and immunoblot analysis to confirm this identification. Together, these findings lay a functional foundation for understanding the contributions of seminal plasma in the regulation of Asian elephant sperm motility, and for improving semen collection and storage in this endangered species

Refining the Moose Serum Progesterone Threshold to Diagnose Pregnancy

Pregnancy determination is necessary for sound wildlife management and understanding population dynamics. Pregnancy rates are sensitive to environmental and physiological factors and may indicate the overall trajectory of a population. Pregnancy can be assessed through direct methods (rectal palpation, sonography) or indicated using hormonal assays (serum progesterone or pregnancy-specific protein B, fecal progestogen metabolites). A commonly used threshold of 2 ng/ml of progesterone in serum has been used by moose biologists to indicate pregnancy but has not been rigorously investigated. To refine this threshold, we examined the relationship between progesterone concentrations in serum samples and pregnancy in 87 moose (Alces alces; 64 female, 23 male) captured from 2010 to 2020 in the Grand Portage Indian Reservation in northeastern Minnesota, USA. Pregnancy was confirmed via rectal palpation (n = 25), necropsy (n = 2), calf observation (n = 25) or characteristic pre-calving behavior (n = 6), with a total of 58 females determined pregnant and 6 not pregnant; 23 males were included to increase the non-pregnant sample size. Using receiver operating characteristic analysis, we identified an optimal threshold of 1.115 ng/ml with a specificity of 0.97 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.90–1.00) and a sensitivity of 0.98 (95% CI = 0.95–1.00). Progesterone concentrations were significantly higher in cases of pregnant versus non-pregnant cows, but we did not detect a difference between single and twin births. We applied our newly refined threshold to calculate annual pregnancy rates for all female moose (n = 133) captured in Grand Portage from 2010 to 2021. Mean pregnancy rate during this period was 91% and ranged annually from 69.2 to 100%. Developing a reliable method for determining pregnancy status via serum progesterone analyses will allow wildlife managers to assess pregnancy rates of moose without devoting substantial time and resources to palpation and calf monitoring

Adiposity, reproductive and metabolic health, and activity levels in zoo Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)

Acknowledgements The authors thank Dr Barbara Gower, Maryellen Williams, Heather Hunter and Cindy Zeng at the UAB NORC's Metabolism Core for their assistance with hormone assays and mass spectroscopy, and Dr Katie Edwards, Steve Paris and Niki Boisseau at SCBI for inflammatory and estradiol analyses. The authors thank African Lion Safari, Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden, Columbus Zoo & Aquarium, Fort Worth Zoo, Little Rock Zoo, Oklahoma City Zoo, Oregon Zoo, Santa Barbara Zoo and Saint Louis Zoo for their participation in this study. Specifically, a very big thank you to the zoos' elephant keepers and elephants, who made this study possible and enjoyable. A special thank you to the Birmingham Zoo and Pat Flora and his elephant team for their continued support, help and input with method improvement. Funding This work was supported in part by the Smithsonian Institution, the UAB Nutrition Obesity Research Center (P30DK056336), the Diabetes Research Center (P30DK079626), the Nathan Shock Center on Aging (P30AG050886), and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (T32HL105349 to D.E.C.). Deposited in PMC for release after 12 months.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Increased stress in Asiatic black bears relates to food limitation, crop raiding, and foraging beyond nature reserve boundaries in China

AbstractAsiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are declining throughout much of their range. In China they are partially protected by a nature reserve system and rely heavily on hard mast as a food source prior to winter denning. Bears may compensate for mast shortages by raiding agricultural crops and killing livestock, mainly outside reserves where they are exposed to increased threats of poaching. We hypothesized that stress would vary with availability of high-quality refugia and fluctuations in mast abundance. We collected fecal samples from free-ranging bears in and around nature reserves in southwestern China, recorded habitat characteristics at each fecal sample location, and quantified abundance of hard mast. We used feces for genetic and endocrine analysis and identified 106 individuals. Feces collected outside reserves, or in agricultural fields within reserves, contained elevated concentrations of glucocorticoid metabolites compared to samples collected in intact, mast-producing forests within reserves. Relationships with habitat variables indicated that the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis of the Asiatic black bear is responsive to human activity, abundance of hard mast, extent of forest cover, and quality of diet. Our findings demonstrate biological reactions of a large mammal to variable forest quality, human threats, and foraging relative to boundaries of protected areas