Arrival of new great salinity anomaly weakens convection in the Irminger Sea

© The Author(s), 2022. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Biló, T., Straneo, F., Holte, J., & Le Bras, I. Arrival of new great salinity anomaly weakens convection in the Irminger Sea. Geophysical Research Letters, 49(11), (2022): e2022GL098857, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022gl098857.The Subpolar North Atlantic is prone to recurrent extreme freshening events called Great Salinity Anomalies (GSAs). Here, we combine hydrographic ocean analyses and moored observations to document the arrival, spreading, and impacts of the most recent GSA in the Irminger Sea. This GSA is associated with a rapid freshening of the upper Irminger Sea between 2015 and 2020, culminating in annually averaged salinities as low as the freshest years of the 1990s and possibly since 1960. Upon the GSA propagation into the Irminger Sea over the Reykjanes Ridge, the boundary currents rapidly advected its signal around the basin within months while fresher waters slowly spread and accumulated into the interior. The anomalies in the interior freshened waters produced by deep convection during the 2017–2018 winter and actively contributed to the suppression of deep convection in the following two winters.We gratefully acknowledge the US National Science Foundation for funding this work under grants OCE-1258823, OCE-1756272, OCE-1948335, and OCE-2038481

Seasonality of the Meridional Overturning Circulation in the subpolar North Atlantic

Understanding the variability of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation is essential for better predictions of our changing climate. Here we present an updated time series (August 2014 to June 2020) from the Overturning in the Subpolar North Atlantic Program. The 6-year time series allows us to observe the seasonality of the subpolar overturning and meridional heat and freshwater transports. The overturning peaks in late spring and reaches a minimum in early winter, with a peak-to-trough range of 9.0 Sv. The overturning seasonal timing can be explained by winter transformation and the export of dense water, modulated by a seasonally varying Ekman transport. Furthermore, over 55% of the total meridional freshwater transport variability can be explained by its seasonality, largely owing to overturning dynamics. Our results provide the first observational analysis of seasonality in the subpolar North Atlantic overturning and highlight its important contribution to the total overturning variability observed to date

North Atlantic Observed Climatological Mean Absolute Geostrophic Velocity Profiles

North Atlantic observed climatological mean absolute geostrophic velocity components in meters per second from near the surface (pressure = 2.5 dbar) to near ocean bottom (pressure = 5562.0 dbar). The absolute velocity fields in the upper 2000 dbar of the water column were obtained by referencing an ARGO based mean geostrophic shear with mean velocity estimates at 1000 dbar between 2004-2016. The shear was derived using the so-called Roemmich-Gilson Argo climatology (Roemmich & Gilson, 2009). The referencing procedure was conducted using Argo displacement data referred to as YoMaHa\u2707 (Lebedev et al., 2007). For regions deeper than 2000 dbar, the velocity profiles were extrapolated using the geostrophic shear estimated from the World Ocean Atlas 2013 (WOA13) climatological dataset. The detailed methodology and uncertainty analysis is presented in Biló & Johns (2019)

Pathways of the North Atlantic Deep Water in the North Atlantic Subtropics: Structure and Recirculation Dynamics

In this dissertation, the structure and dynamical processes controlling the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) interior pathways and recirculation in the North Atlantic subtropics (15-50°N) are investigated using different observational datasets and numerical experiments. Combining 12 years of Argo profiles and subsurface Argo drift data, pathways and transports of the upper-NADW between approximately 1000 and 2000 m depth (i.e., mainly Labrador Sea Water, LSW) were studied. Consistent with previous research, the results show clear evidence for interior pathways of LSW that separate from the western boundary near the Grand Banks and flow eastward and then southward around a large-scale deep anticyclonic gyre in the northern subtropical Atlantic. Most of the LSW exported into the interior recirculates in the Newfoundland Basin (9.3±3.5 Sv). However, approximately 3.2±0.4 Sv cross the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and flow southward east of the Azores. This branch feeds a westward quasi-zonal pathway that recrosses the Ridge and returns to the western boundary around 30°N.South of 30°N, the NADW circulation and Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) variability offshore of Abaco, Bahamas at 26.5°N are investigated from nearly two decades of velocity and hydrographic observations, and outputs from a 30-year long eddy-resolving global simulation. The observations show the presence of a mean Abaco Gyre spanning the NADW layer, consisting of a closed cyclonic circulation between approximately 24-30°N and 72-77°W. The mean DWBC is constrained to within ~150 km of the western boundary with a mean transport of ~30 Sv, while a consistent northward recirculation with net transports varying from 6.5-16 Sv is observed offshore. Current meter records spanning 2008-2017 supported by the numerical simulation indicate that the DWBC transport variability is dominated by two distinct types of fluctuations: (1) periods of 250-280 days that occur regularly throughout the time-series; and (2) energetic oscillations with periods between 400-700 days that occur sporadically every 5-6 years. The shorter-period variations are related to DWBC meandering caused by eddies propagating southward along the continental slope at 24-30°N, while the longer-period oscillations appear to be related to large anticyclonic eddies that slowly propagate northwestward counter to the DWBC flow between ~20-26.5°N. Observational and theoretical evidence suggest that these two types of variability might be generated, respectively, by DWBC instability processes and Rossby Waves reflecting from the western boundary.Finally, the dynamics of the deep recirculation offshore the DWBC between 15-30°N within the upper-NADW layer is investigated from two different eddy-resolving numerical simulations. Despite some differences in the recirculation cells, our assessment of the modeled deep isopycnal circulation patterns (36.77 σ2&nbsp;-3) shows that both simulations predict the DWBC flowing southward along the continental slope, while the Abaco Gyre and two additional cyclonic cells recirculate waters northward in the interior. These cells are a few degrees wide, located along the DWBC path, and characterized by PV changes occurring along their mean streamlines. The analysis of the mean PV budget reveals that these changes result from the action of eddy forcing that tends to destroy the horizontal PV gradients. The lack of a major upper ocean boundary current between 15-30°N, and the fact that the strongest eddy forcing is constrained within a few hundreds of kilometers of the western boundary, suggest that the DWBC is the primary source such eddy forcing. The eddies responsible for forcing the recirculation have dominant time scales between 100 and 300 days, which correspond to the observed primary variability scales of the DWBC transport at 26.5°N.</p

O variável sistema Corrente do Brasil entre 23ºS-31ºS: estrutura vertical e dinâmica de mesoescala

We use hydrographic and direct velocity observations from two quasi-synoptic cruises in conjunction with a primitive equation linear instability model, to investigate the Brazil Current (BC) downstream change effect between 23°S-30°S on the temporal mixed instabilities properties. The quasi-synoptic data revealed that the BC is &#8764;400-500 m deep to the north of the so-called Santos Bifurcation (26°S-28°S) and extends down to 1000 m to the south of it. We estimated that the BC receives at least 7 Sv from the Santos Bifurcation, which drastically alters the BC\'s velocity vertical structure and meanders characteristics as it flows poleward. Based on direct velocity measurements, we computed the mixed-instability properties at three different latitudes (24°S, 26°S and 30°S). The instability analysis revealed unstable current systems to mesoscale perturbations with maximum growth rates of 0.12, 0.19 and 0.06 day-1 at 24°S, 26°S and 30°S respectively. The corresponding downstream phase speeds are -0.19, -0.24 and -0.26 m s-1. The analysis of the mean-to-eddy energy conversion terms show that the barotropic instability drains 60-90% less energy from the background state than the baroclinic instability. Nevertheless, the maximum growth rates are at least the double in magnitude when both instabilities occur simultaneously. The topography presents a stabilizing effect for both kind of instabilities along all the BC path. At the vicinities of the Cape Santa Marta (28°S), we explored the the recurrent cyclonic meanders of the BC. Combining a wide range of observations, we provided a overview of such features and the relations between its velocity patterns, the water properties (temperature, salinity, nutrients), chlorophyll-a distribution and the BC variability. The top-bottom quasi-synoptic velocity measurements depicted cyclonic meanders over the continental slope with diameters larger than 100 km and vertically extending to approximately 1500 m depth. Moreover, the observed eddies seems to trap and recirculate a small portion (&#8764;1.5 to 4 Sv) of the BC main flow (-13.16 to -17.89 Sv), which is consisted of Tropical Water (TW), South Atlantic Central Water (SACW), Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) and Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW). Additionally, we presented observational evidence that the meanders actively influence the transport of nutrient-rich shelf waters to the open ocean enhancing the primary productivity at the photic zone over the continental slope. Satellite imagery show that these cyclonic events occur 5-6 times per year and are generally associated with wave-like perturbations on the flow with mean wavelength of &#8764;219 km. Finally, Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) analysis computed from an array of mooring lines show that more than half of the along-isobath velocity variance on the continental slope is explained by the BC mesoscale activity.As propriedades de instabilidade temporal mista da Corrente do Brasil (CB), entre 23°S-30°S, foram investigadas combinando dados hidrográficos e medições diretas de velocide com modelagem numérica. As observações revelaram uma CB com &#8764;400-500 m de profundidade ao norte da Bifurcação de Santos (26°S-28°S). Em contrapartida, a CB ao sul da bifurcação se mostrou muito mais profunda (> 1000 m) devido ao aporte de aproximadamente 7 Sv de águas em profundidades intermediárias (&#8764;500-1500 m) oriundas do ramo sul da Bifurcação de Santos. Baseado-se nas observações, experimentos numéricos foram conduzidos em três latitudes (24°S, 26°S and 30°S), com o intuito de se estudar as propriedades da instabilidade geofísica da CB. Tais experimentos mostraram que o sistema de correntes é instável para perturbações de mesoescala com taxas de crescimento máximas de 0,12, 0,19 and 0,06 dia-1 nas latitudes de 24°S, 26°S and 30°S, respectivamente. A análise das taxas de transferências de energia das correntes médias para as pertubações revelou que a instabilidade barotrópica é de 60 a 90% menor que a instabilidade baroclínica. No entanto observou-se que as propriedades das instabilidades da BC são altamente sensíveis à presença de instabilidade barotrópica. A topografia demonstrou possuir um efeito estabilizador ao longo de toda trajetória da CB. Ao largo do Cabo de Santa Marta (28°S) os meandros ciclônicos da CB tiveram suas características exploradas do ponto de vista observacional. Combinando uma grande variedade de observações, foi obtido uma visão geral de tais feições, assim como as relações entre seus padrões de velocidade, propriedades da água do mar (temperatura, salinidade, nutrientes), distribuição de clorofila A e a variabilidade da BC. As observações quasi-sinóticas de velocidade em toda a coluna mostraram que os meandros possuem diâmetro superiores à 100 km e extensão vertical de aproximadamente 1500 m. Desta forma, observou-se feições que recirculam uma pequena parte (&#8764;1.5 à 4 Sv) do eixo principal da CB (-13.16 à -17.8 Sv) composta por Água Tropical, Água Central do Atlântico Sul, Água Intermediária Antártica e Água Circumpolar Superior. Além disso, evidências de que tais meandros influenciam ativamente no transporte de águas da Plataforma Continental, ricas em nutrientes, para regiões profundas do Talude Continental foram encontradas. A análise de imagens de satelitárias indicaram que essas feições são efetivamente recorrentes na região e ocorrrem entre 5 a 6 vezes por ano. Para concluir, registros correntográficos indicaram que aproximadamente metade da variância da componente da velocidade ao logo das isóbatas, sobre o talude continental, é devido à atividade de mesoescala da CB

The Deep Western Boundary Current and Adjacent Interior Circulation at 24°–30°N: Mean Structure and Mesoscale Variability

AbstractThe mean North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW, 1000 < z < 5000 m) circulation and deep western boundary current (DWBC) variability offshore of Abaco, Bahamas, at 26.5°N are investigated from nearly two decades of velocity and hydrographic observations, and outputs from a 30-yr-long eddy-resolving global simulation. Observations at 26.5°N and Argo-derived geostrophic velocities show the presence of a mean Abaco Gyre spanning the NADW layer, consisting of a closed cyclonic circulation between approximately 24° and 30°N and 72° and 77°W. The southward-flowing portion of this gyre (the DWBC) is constrained to within ~150 km of the western boundary with a mean transport of ~30 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1). Offshore of the DWBC, the data show a consistent northward recirculation with net transports varying from 6.5 to 16 Sv. Current meter records spanning 2008–17 supported by the numerical simulation indicate that the DWBC transport variability is dominated by two distinct types of fluctuations: 1) periods of 250–280 days that occur regularly throughout the time series and 2) energetic oscillations with periods between 400 and 700 days that occur sporadically every 5–6 years and force the DWBC to meander far offshore for several months. The shorter-period variations are related to DWBC meandering caused by eddies propagating southward along the continental slope at 24°–30°N, while the longer-period oscillations appear to be related to large anticyclonic eddies that slowly propagate northwestward counter to the DWBC flow between ~20° and 26.5°N. Observational and theoretical evidence suggest that these two types of variability might be generated, respectively, by DWBC instability processes and Rossby waves reflecting from the western boundary

Warming-to-Cooling Reversal of Overflow-Derived Water Masses in the Irminger Sea During 2002-2021

International audienceShipboard hydrography along the A25-Ovide section (2002-2018) is combined with a high-resolution mooring array (2014-2020) and a regional fleet of Deep-Argo floats (2016-2021) to describe temperature changes of overflow-derived water masses in the Irminger Sea. Removing dynamical influences enables to identify a new statistically significant trend reversal in Iceland Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) and Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW) core temperatures in the mid-2010s. A basin-wide cooling trend of −16 ± 6 m°C yr−1 during 2016-2021—but reaching as strong as −44 ± 13 m°C yr−1 for DSOW in recent years—is found to interrupt a warming phase that was prevailing since the late 1990s. The absence of an apparent reversal in the Nordic Seas and the faster changes detected in DSOW compared to ISOW point out the entrainment of subpolar signals within the overflows near the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sills as a most likely driver

Global Oceans

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) and heat transport (MHT) have been observed (Fig. 3.21) at several trans-basin and western boundary moored arrays (e.g., Frajka-Williams et al. 2019; Berx et al. 2021; Hummels et al. 2022), as well as by synthesizing in situ and satellite altimetry measurements at several latitudes (Hobbs and Willis 2012; Sanchez-Franks et al. 2021; Dong et al. 2021; Kersalé et al. 2021). Here we provide updates on the MOC and MHT estimates from the Rapid Climate Change/MOC and Heatflux Array/Western Boundary Time Series (RAPID-MOCHA-WBTS) moored array at 26.5°N and from the synthetic approach at 41°N and at several latitudes in the South Atlantic. While updates for the Overturning in the Subpolar North Atlantic Program and the South Atlantic MOC Basin-wide Array at 34.5°S are pending, we report on recent advances in observing the variability of flows comprising the lower limb of the North Atlantic MOC, including the Meridional Overturning Variability Experiment (MOVE, 16°N)

State of the climate in 2022: introduction

Earth’s global climate system is vast, complex, and intricately interrelated. Many areas are influenced by global-scale phenomena, including the “triple dip” La Niña conditions that prevailed in the eastern Pacific Ocean nearly continuously from mid-2020 through all of 2022; by regional phenomena such as the positive winter and summer North Atlantic Oscillation that impacted weather in parts the Northern Hemisphere and the negative Indian Ocean dipole that impacted weather in parts of the Southern Hemisphere; and by more localized systems such as high-pressure heat domes that caused extreme heat in different areas of the world. Underlying all these natural short-term variabilities are long-term climate trends due to continuous increases since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the atmospheric concentrations of Earth’s major greenhouse gases.In 2022, the annual global average carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere rose to 417.1±0.1 ppm, which is 50% greater than the pre-industrial level. Global mean tropospheric methane abundance was 165% higher than its pre-industrial level, and nitrous oxide was 24% higher. All three gases set new record-high atmospheric concentration levels in 2022.Sea-surface temperature patterns in the tropical Pacific characteristic of La Niña and attendant atmospheric patterns tend to mitigate atmospheric heat gain at the global scale, but the annual global surface temperature across land and oceans was still among the six highest in records dating as far back as the mid-1800s. It was the warmest La Niña year on record. Many areas observed record or near-record heat. Europe as a whole observed its second-warmest year on record, with sixteen individual countries observing record warmth at the national scale. Records were shattered across the continent during the summer months as heatwaves plagued the region. On 18 July, 104 stations in France broke their all-time records. One day later, England recorded a temperature of 40°C for the first time ever. China experienced its second-warmest year and warmest summer on record. In the Southern Hemisphere, the average temperature across New Zealand reached a record high for the second year in a row. While Australia’s annual temperature was slightly below the 1991–2020 average, Onslow Airport in Western Australia reached 50.7°C on 13 January, equaling Australia's highest temperature on record.While fewer in number and locations than record-high temperatures, record cold was also observed during the year. Southern Africa had its coldest August on record, with minimum temperatures as much as 5°C below normal over Angola, western Zambia, and northern Namibia. Cold outbreaks in the first half of December led to many record-low daily minimum temperature records in eastern Australia.The effects of rising temperatures and extreme heat were apparent across the Northern Hemisphere, where snow-cover extent by June 2022 was the third smallest in the 56-year record, and the seasonal duration of lake ice cover was the fourth shortest since 1980. More frequent and intense heatwaves contributed to the second-greatest average mass balance loss for Alpine glaciers around the world since the start of the record in 1970. Glaciers in the Swiss Alps lost a record 6% of their volume. In South America, the combination of drought and heat left many central Andean glaciers snow free by mid-summer in early 2022; glacial ice has a much lower albedo than snow, leading to accelerated heating of the glacier. Across the global cryosphere, permafrost temperatures continued to reach record highs at many high-latitude and mountain locations.In the high northern latitudes, the annual surface-air temperature across the Arctic was the fifth highest in the 123-year record. The seasonal Arctic minimum sea-ice extent, typically reached in September, was the 11th-smallest in the 43-year record; however, the amount of multiyear ice—ice that survives at least one summer melt season—remaining in the Arctic continued to decline. Since 2012, the Arctic has been nearly devoid of ice more than four years old.In Antarctica, an unusually large amount of snow and ice fell over the continent in 2022 due to several landfalling atmospheric rivers, which contributed to the highest annual surface mass balance, 15% to 16% above the 1991–2020 normal, since the start of two reanalyses records dating to 1980. It was the second-warmest year on record for all five of the long-term staffed weather stations on the Antarctic Peninsula. In East Antarctica, a heatwave event led to a new all-time record-high temperature of −9.4°C—44°C above the March average—on 18 March at Dome C. This was followed by the collapse of the critically unstable Conger Ice Shelf. More than 100 daily low sea-ice extent and sea-ice area records were set in 2022, including two new all-time annual record lows in net sea-ice extent and area in February.Across the world’s oceans, global mean sea level was record high for the 11th consecutive year, reaching 101.2 mm above the 1993 average when satellite altimetry measurements began, an increase of 3.3±0.7 over 2021. Globally-averaged ocean heat content was also record high in 2022, while the global sea-surface temperature was the sixth highest on record, equal with 2018. Approximately 58% of the ocean surface experienced at least one marine heatwave in 2022. In the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand’s longest continuous marine heatwave was recorded.A total of 85 named tropical storms were observed during the Northern and Southern Hemisphere storm seasons, close to the 1991–2020 average of 87. There were three Category 5 tropical cyclones across the globe—two in the western North Pacific and one in the North Atlantic. This was the fewest Category 5 storms globally since 2017. Globally, the accumulated cyclone energy was the lowest since reliable records began in 1981. Regardless, some storms caused massive damage. In the North Atlantic, Hurricane Fiona became the most intense and most destructive tropical or post-tropical cyclone in Atlantic Canada’s history, while major Hurricane Ian killed more than 100 people and became the third costliest disaster in the United States, causing damage estimated at $113 billion U.S. dollars. In the South Indian Ocean, Tropical Cyclone Batsirai dropped 2044 mm of rain at Commerson Crater in Réunion. The storm also impacted Madagascar, where 121 fatalities were reported.As is typical, some areas around the world were notably dry in 2022 and some were notably wet. In August, record high areas of land across the globe (6.2%) were experiencing extreme drought. Overall, 29% of land experienced moderate or worse categories of drought during the year. The largest drought footprint in the contiguous United States since 2012 (63%) was observed in late October. The record-breaking megadrought of central Chile continued in its 13th consecutive year, and 80-year record-low river levels in northern Argentina and Paraguay disrupted fluvial transport. In China, the Yangtze River reached record-low values. Much of equatorial eastern Africa had five consecutive below-normal rainy seasons by the end of 2022, with some areas receiving record-low precipitation totals for the year. This ongoing 2.5-year drought is the most extensive and persistent drought event in decades, and led to crop failure, millions of livestock deaths, water scarcity, and inflated prices for staple food items.In South Asia, Pakistan received around three times its normal volume of monsoon precipitation in August, with some regions receiving up to eight times their expected monthly totals. Resulting floods affected over 30 million people, caused over 1700 fatalities, led to major crop and property losses, and was recorded as one of the world’s costliest natural disasters of all time. Near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Petrópolis received 530 mm in 24 hours on 15 February, about 2.5 times the monthly February average, leading to the worst disaster in the city since 1931 with over 230 fatalities.On 14–15 January, the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai submarine volcano in the South Pacific erupted multiple times. The injection of water into the atmosphere was unprecedented in both magnitude—far exceeding any previous values in the 17-year satellite record—and altitude as it penetrated into the mesosphere. The amount of water injected into the stratosphere is estimated to be 146±5 Terragrams, or ∼10% of the total amount in the stratosphere. It may take several years for the water plume to dissipate, and it is currently unknown whether this eruption will have any long-term climate effect