Оценка фискальной иллюзии при налогообложении доходов физических лиц

Фискальная иллюзия сама по себе не является негативным явлением, она всего лишь следствие осуществляемой фискальной политики государства. Тем не менее, фискальная иллюзия нарушает представление экономических агентов о масштабах государственного влияния в перераспределении своих доходов и тем самым способствует принятию ими не самых эффективных экономических решений.Фіскальна ілюзія сама по собі не є негативним явищем, вона всього лише слідство здійснюваної фіскальної політики держави. Проте, фіскальна ілюзія порушує уявлення економічних агентів про масштаби державного впливу в перерозподілі своїх доходів і тим самим сприяє ухваленню ними не найефективніших економічних рішень

A specific mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides enhances the tolerizing capacity of a partial whey hydrolysate in a mouse model for cow's milk allergy

Hypoallergenic infant formulas (HA) are considered a good alternative for infants at high risk for developing allergy if breastfeeding is not possible. Dietary intervention studies with HA combined with a specific mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides, have been shown to reduce allergic symptoms in these children. However, the mechanisms by which these oligosaccharides exert their effect are yet to be explored. In this study, the contribution of this specific oligosaccharides mixture on the tolerizing capacity of a partial whey hydrolysate (WH) was investigated in a mice model of cow's milk allergy. Mice were sensitized orally with whey using cholera toxin as adjuvant. Prior to sensitization mice were pre-treated orally with partial WH, PBS, with or without supplementation with the specific oligosaccharide mixture containing short chain-galacto-, long chain-fructo- and acidic-oligosaccharides (9:1:1). After challenge, the acute allergic skin response, the mast cell mediator mMCP-1 and whey-specific antibodies were measured. The presence of Foxp3+regulatory T-cells and CD103+DC were determined in mesenteric lymph nodes. Oral pre-treatment of mice fed the partial WH induced tolerance as refl ected by a reduced acute allergic skin response and a suppressed mMCP-1 release without affecting whey-specific IgE levels. This effect coincided with increased CD103+DC and Foxp3+regulatory T-cell numbers. Interestingly, a combination of the partial WH and oligosaccharide diet completely abolished the acute allergic skin response and mMCP-1 release. In addition, a tendency towards decreased IgE levels and a further increase in intestinal CD103+DC numbers was observed. A specific mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides enhanced the capacity of a partial WH to induce oral tolerance. This effect was associated with increased numbers of CD103+DC in the mesenteric lymph nodes, suggesting a role of these cells in the observed tolerance inducing capacity of this specific oligosaccharide mixture combined with partial WH

Suppression of Th2-driven airway inflammation by allergen immunotherapy is independent of B cell and Ig responses in mice

Allergen-specific immunotherapy (IT) uniquely renders long-term relief from allergic symptoms and is associated with elevated serum levels of allergen-specific IgG and IgA. The allergen-specific IgG response induced by IT treatment was shown to be critical for suppression of the immediate phase of the allergic response in mice, and this suppression was partially dependent on signaling through Fc gamma RIIB. To investigate the relevance of the allergen-specific IgG responses for suppression of the Th2-driven late-phase allergic response, we performed IT in a mouse model of allergic asthma in the absence of FcgRIIB or Fc gamma RI/Fc gamma RIII signaling. We found that suppression of Th2 cell activity, allergic inflammation, and allergen-specific IgE responses is independent of Fc gamma RIIB and Fc gamma RI/Fc gamma RIII signaling. Moreover, we show that the IT-induced allergen-specific systemic IgG or IgA responses and B cell function are dispensable for suppression of the late-phase allergic response by IT treatment. Finally, we found that the secretory mucosal IgA response also is not required for suppression of the Th2-driven allergic inflammation by IT. These data are in contrast to the suppression of the immediate phase of the allergic response, which is critically dependent on the induced allergen-specific serum IgG response. Hence, IT-induced suppression of the immediate and late phases of the allergic response is governed by divergent and independent mechanisms. Our data show that the IT-induced suppression of the Th2 cell-dependent late-phase allergic response is independent of the allergen-specific IgG and IgA responses that are associated with IT treatment