Membrane Trafficking in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model

International audienceThe yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is one of the best characterized eukaryotic models. The secretory pathway was the first trafficking pathway clearly understood mainly thanks to the work done in the laboratory of Randy Schekman in the 1980s. They have isolated yeast sec mutants unable to secrete an extracellular enzyme and these SEC genes were identified as encoding key effectors of the secretory machinery. For this work, the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine has been awarded to Randy Schekman; the prize is shared with James Rothman and Thomas Südhof. Here, we present the different trafficking pathways of yeast S. cerevisiae. At the Golgi apparatus newly synthesized proteins are sorted between those transported to the plasma membrane (PM), or the external medium, via the exocytosis or secretory pathway (SEC), and those targeted to the vacuole either through endosomes (vacuolar protein sorting or VPS pathway) or directly (alkaline phosphatase or ALP pathway). Plasma membrane proteins can be internalized by endocytosis (END) and transported to endosomes where they are sorted between those targeted for vacuolar degradation and those redirected to the Golgi (recycling or RCY pathway). Studies in yeast S. cerevisiae allowed the identification of most of the known effectors, protein complexes, and trafficking pathways in eukaryotic cells, and most of them are conserved among eukaryotes

Les phosphoinositides, des lipides acteurs essentiels du trafic intracellulaire

International audiencePhosphoinositides (PPIn) are lipids involved in the vesicular transport of proteins between the different intracellular compartments. They act by recruiting and/or activating effector proteins and are thus involved in crucial cellular functions including vesicle budding, fusion and dynamics of membranes and regulation of the cytoskeleton. Although they are present in low concentrations in membranes, their activity is essential for cell survival and needs to be tightly controlled. Therefore, phosphatases and kinases specific of the various cellular membranes can phosphorylate/dephosphorylate their inositol ring on the positions D3, D4 and/or D5. The differential phosphoryla-tion determines the intracellular localisation and the activity of the PPIn. Indeed, non-phosphorylated phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) is the basic component of the PPIn and can be found in all eukaryotic cells at the cytoplasmic face of the ER, the Golgi, mitochondria and microsomes. It can get phosphorylated on position D4 to obtain PtdIns4P, a PPIn enriched in the Golgi compartment and involved in the maintenance of this organelle as well as anterograde and retrograde transport to and from the Golgi. PtdIns phosphorylation on position D3 results in PtdIns3P that is required for endosomal transport and multivesicular body (MVB) formation and sorting. These monophosphorylated PtdIns can be further phosphorylated to produce bisphophory-lated PtdIns. Thus, PtdIns(4,5)P2, mainly produced by PtdIns4P phosphorylation, is enriched in the plasma membrane and involved in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton and endocytosis. PtdIns(3,5)P2, mainly produced by PtdIns3P phosphorylation, is enriched in late endosomes, MVBs and the lysosome/vacuole and plays a role in endo-some to vacuole transport. PtdIns(3,4)P2 is absent in yeast, cells and mainly produced by PtdIns4P phosphorylation in human cells; PtdIns(3,4)P2 is localised in the plasma membrane and plays an important role as a second messenger by recruiting specificLes phosphoinositides sont des lipides impliqués dans le transport vésiculaire des protéines entre les différents compartiments. Ils agissent par le recrutement et/ou l’activation de protéines effectrices et sont de ce fait impliqués dans la régulation de différentes fonctions cellulaires telles que le bourgeonnement vésiculaire, la fusion ou la dynamique des membranes et du cytosquelette. Bien que présents en faible concentration dans les membranes, leur rôle est indispensable à la survie des cellules et doit être régulé avec précision. Le contrôle de leur fonction se fait par la phosphorylation/déphosphorylation des positions D3, D4 et/ou D5 de leur anneau inositol par des kinases et phosphatases spécifiques des différentes membranes intracellulaires. Ces enzymes sont en partie conservées entre la levure et l’Homme et leur perte de fonction peut entraîner des maladies génétiques graves comme les myopathies

Expression of the neuropathy-associated MTMR2 gene rescues MTM1-associated myopathy

Myotubularins (MTMs) are active or dead phosphoinositides phosphatases defining a large protein family conserved through evolution and implicated in different neuromuscular diseases. Loss-of-function mutations in MTM1 cause the severe congenital myopathy called myotubular myopathy (or X-linked centronuclear myopathy) while mutations in the MTM1-related protein MTMR2 cause a recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth peripheral neuropathy. Here we aimed to determine the functional specificity and redundancy of MTM1 and MTMR2, and to assess their abilities to compensate for a potential therapeutic strategy. Using molecular investigations and heterologous expression of human MTMs in yeast cells and in Mtm1 knockout mice, we characterized several naturally occurring MTMR2 isoforms with different activities. We identified the N-terminal domain as responsible for functional differences between MTM1 and MTMR2. An N-terminal extension observed in MTMR2 is absent in MTM1, and only the short MTMR2 isoform lacking this N-terminal extension behaved similarly to MTM1 in yeast and mice. Moreover, adeno-associated virus-mediated exogenous expression of several MTMR2 isoforms ameliorates the myopathic phenotype owing to MTM1 loss, with increased muscle force, reduced myofiber atrophy, and reduction of the intracellular disorganization hallmarks associated with myotubular myopathy. Noteworthy, the short MTMR2 isoform provided a better rescue when compared with the long MTMR2 isoform. In conclusion, these results point to the molecular basis for MTMs functional specificity. They also provide the proof-of-concept that expression of the neuropathy-associated MTMR2 gene improves the MTM1-associated myopathy, thus identifying MTMR2 as a novel therapeutic target for myotubular myopathy

Phosphatase-dead myotubularin ameliorates X-linked centronuclear myopathy phenotypes in mice

Myotubularin MTM1 is a phosphoinositide (PPIn) 3-phosphatase mutated in X-linked centronuclear myopathy (XLCNM; myotubular myopathy). We investigated the involvement of MTM1 enzymatic activity on XLCNM phenotypes. Exogenous expression of human MTM1 in yeast resulted in vacuolar enlargement, as a consequence of its phosphatase activity. Expression of mutants from patients with different clinical progression and determination of PtdIns3P and PtdIns5P cellular levels confirmed the link between vacuolar morphology and MTM1 phosphatase activity, and showed that some disease mutants retain phosphatase activity. Viral gene transfer of phosphatase-dead myotubularin mutants (MTM1(C375S) and MTM1(S376N)) significantly improved most histological signs of XLCNM displayed by a Mtm1-null mouse, at similar levels as wild-type MTM1. Moreover, the MTM1(C375S) mutant improved muscle performance and restored the localization of nuclei, triad alignment, and the desmin intermediate filament network, while it did not normalize PtdIns3P levels, supporting phosphatase-independent roles of MTM1 in maintaining normal muscle performance and organelle positioning in skeletal muscle. Among the different XLCNM signs investigated, we identified only triad shape and fiber size distribution as being partially dependent on MTM1 phosphatase activity. In conclusion, this work uncovers MTM1 roles in the structural organization of muscle fibers that are independent of its enzymatic activity. This underlines that removal of enzymes should be used with care to conclude on the physiological importance of their activity

Analyse des mécanismes cellulaires responsables de maladies neurodégénératives dans le modèle de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae : analyse fonctionnelle de myotubularines responsables de pathologies humaines

Mutations in myotubularin (MTM) genes are responsible for neuromuscular diseases like the XLCNM (MTM1) or the CMT4B (MTMR2 & MTMR13). MTMs dephosphorylate phosphoinositides (PPIn), lipid messengers that play an essential role in the spatio-temporal regulation of critical cellular functions.The presence of 14 MTMs paralogues in Human hinders the analysis of the cellular function of a single MTM family member. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae displays an intracellular organization that is similar to human cells and its genome encodes for only one myotubularin (YMR1) for which deletion mutants are available and viable.The expression of MTM1 either wild-type or mutants from patients, in yeast, shows that only phosphatase-active myotubularins induce an abnormal morphology of the lysosomal compartment and a defect in the endocytic membrane trafficking.Our results suggest that the catalytic activity of MTM1 isn’t single-handedly responsible for XLCNM but that other mecanisms, such as protein-protein interactions, could take part in the development of the disease.Des mutations dans les gènes codant pour des myotubularines (MTM) sont responsables de maladies neuromusculaires telles que la XLCNM (MTM1) ou la CMT4 (MTMR2 & MTMR13). Les MTMs sont des phosphatases à phosphosinositides (PPIn), des messagers lipidiques essentiels pour la régulation spatio-temporelle de fonctions cellulaires vitales.La présence de 14 paralogues de MTMs chez l’Homme complique l’analyse de la fonction cellulaire d’un seul membre de la famille. La levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dont l’organisation cellulaire est comparable à une cellule humaine, ne compte en revanche qu’un seul homologue de MTM (YMR1), pour lequel nous disposons de mutants de délétion viables.L’expression de MTM1 sauvage ou mutants de patients dans la levure montre seules les myotubularines enzymatiquement actives induisent une morphologie anormale du compartiment lysosomal et un défaut du trafic membranaires endocytique.Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité phosphatase de MTM1 ne serait pas à elle seule responsable de la XLCNM mais que d’autres mécanismes, tels que les interactions protéiques, pourraient prendre part au développement de la maladie

Analysis of cellular mechanisms responsible for neurodegenerative diseases using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae model : functional analysis of myotubularins responsible for human diseases

Des mutations dans les gènes codant pour des myotubularines (MTM) sont responsables de maladies neuromusculaires telles que la XLCNM (MTM1) ou la CMT4 (MTMR2 & MTMR13). Les MTMs sont des phosphatases à phosphosinositides (PPIn), des messagers lipidiques essentiels pour la régulation spatio-temporelle de fonctions cellulaires vitales.La présence de 14 paralogues de MTMs chez l’Homme complique l’analyse de la fonction cellulaire d’un seul membre de la famille. La levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dont l’organisation cellulaire est comparable à une cellule humaine, ne compte en revanche qu’un seul homologue de MTM (YMR1), pour lequel nous disposons de mutants de délétion viables.L’expression de MTM1 sauvage ou mutants de patients dans la levure montre seules les myotubularines enzymatiquement actives induisent une morphologie anormale du compartiment lysosomal et un défaut du trafic membranaires endocytique.Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité phosphatase de MTM1 ne serait pas à elle seule responsable de la XLCNM mais que d’autres mécanismes, tels que les interactions protéiques, pourraient prendre part au développement de la maladie.Mutations in myotubularin (MTM) genes are responsible for neuromuscular diseases like the XLCNM (MTM1) or the CMT4B (MTMR2 & MTMR13). MTMs dephosphorylate phosphoinositides (PPIn), lipid messengers that play an essential role in the spatio-temporal regulation of critical cellular functions.The presence of 14 MTMs paralogues in Human hinders the analysis of the cellular function of a single MTM family member. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae displays an intracellular organization that is similar to human cells and its genome encodes for only one myotubularin (YMR1) for which deletion mutants are available and viable.The expression of MTM1 either wild-type or mutants from patients, in yeast, shows that only phosphatase-active myotubularins induce an abnormal morphology of the lysosomal compartment and a defect in the endocytic membrane trafficking.Our results suggest that the catalytic activity of MTM1 isn’t single-handedly responsible for XLCNM but that other mecanisms, such as protein-protein interactions, could take part in the development of the disease

Analyse des mécanismes cellulaires responsables de maladies neurodégénératives dans le modèle de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae (analyse fonctionnelle de myotubularines responsables de pathologies humaines)

Des mutations dans les gènes codant pour des myotubularines (MTM) sont responsables de maladies neuromusculaires telles que la XLCNM (MTM1) ou la CMT4 (MTMR2 & MTMR13). Les MTMs sont des phosphatases à phosphosinositides (PPIn), des messagers lipidiques essentiels pour la régulation spatio-temporelle de fonctions cellulaires vitales.La présence de 14 paralogues de MTMs chez l Homme complique l analyse de la fonction cellulaire d un seul membre de la famille. La levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dont l organisation cellulaire est comparable à une cellule humaine, ne compte en revanche qu un seul homologue de MTM (YMR1), pour lequel nous disposons de mutants de délétion viables.L expression de MTM1 sauvage ou mutants de patients dans la levure montre seules les myotubularines enzymatiquement actives induisent une morphologie anormale du compartiment lysosomal et un défaut du trafic membranaires endocytique.Nos résultats suggèrent que l activité phosphatase de MTM1 ne serait pas à elle seule responsable de la XLCNM mais que d autres mécanismes, tels que les interactions protéiques, pourraient prendre part au développement de la maladie.Mutations in myotubularin (MTM) genes are responsible for neuromuscular diseases like the XLCNM (MTM1) or the CMT4B (MTMR2 & MTMR13). MTMs dephosphorylate phosphoinositides (PPIn), lipid messengers that play an essential role in the spatio-temporal regulation of critical cellular functions.The presence of 14 MTMs paralogues in Human hinders the analysis of the cellular function of a single MTM family member. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae displays an intracellular organization that is similar to human cells and its genome encodes for only one myotubularin (YMR1) for which deletion mutants are available and viable.The expression of MTM1 either wild-type or mutants from patients, in yeast, shows that only phosphatase-active myotubularins induce an abnormal morphology of the lysosomal compartment and a defect in the endocytic membrane trafficking.Our results suggest that the catalytic activity of MTM1 isn t single-handedly responsible for XLCNM but that other mecanisms, such as protein-protein interactions, could take part in the development of the disease.STRASBOURG-Bib.electronique 063 (674829902) / SudocSudocFranceF

Phosphoinositides, Major Actors in Membrane Trafficking and Lipid Signaling Pathways

Phosphoinositides are lipids involved in the vesicular transport of proteins and lipids between the different compartments of eukaryotic cells. They act by recruiting and/or activating effector proteins and thus are involved in regulating various cellular functions, such as vesicular budding, membrane fusion and cytoskeleton dynamics. Although detected in small concentrations in membranes, their role is essential to cell function, since imbalance in their concentrations is a hallmark of many cancers. Their synthesis involves phosphorylating/dephosphorylating positions D3, D4 and/or D5 of their inositol ring by specific lipid kinases and phosphatases. This process is tightly regulated and specific to the different intracellular membranes. Most enzymes involved in phosphoinositide synthesis are conserved between yeast and human, and their loss of function leads to severe diseases (cancer, myopathy, neuropathy and ciliopathy)

Phosphatase-dead myotubularin ameliorates X-linked centronuclear myopathy phenotypes in mice.

International audienceMyotubularin MTM1 is a phosphoinositide (PPIn) 3-phosphatase mutated in X-linked centronuclear myopathy (XLCNM; myotubular myopathy). We investigated the involvement of MTM1 enzymatic activity on XLCNM phenotypes. Exogenous expression of human MTM1 in yeast resulted in vacuolar enlargement, as a consequence of its phosphatase activity. Expression of mutants from patients with different clinical progression and determination of PtdIns3P and PtdIns5P cellular levels confirmed the link between vacuolar morphology and MTM1 phosphatase activity, and showed that some disease mutants retain phosphatase activity. Viral gene transfer of phosphatase-dead myotubularin mutants (MTM1(C375S) and MTM1(S376N)) significantly improved most histological signs of XLCNM displayed by a Mtm1-null mouse, at similar levels as wild-type MTM1. Moreover, the MTM1(C375S) mutant improved muscle performance and restored the localization of nuclei, triad alignment, and the desmin intermediate filament network, while it did not normalize PtdIns3P levels, supporting phosphatase-independent roles of MTM1 in maintaining normal muscle performance and organelle positioning in skeletal muscle. Among the different XLCNM signs investigated, we identified only triad shape and fiber size distribution as being partially dependent on MTM1 phosphatase activity. In conclusion, this work uncovers MTM1 roles in the structural organization of muscle fibers that are independent of its enzymatic activity. This underlines that removal of enzymes should be used with care to conclude on the physiological importance of their activity