10 research outputs found
Questioning surveillance
The aim of this article is to make suggestions that could empower different socio-political groups to question surveillance. It does so by formulating sets of questions that different stakeholders can ask of themselves, of the private sector, and of government, including intelligence agencies. It is divided into three main parts. The first part provides some background on resilience in surveillance societies. It defines the terms and identifies features of resilience and todayâs surveillance society. The second part lays out a set of questions addressed to each of the stakeholder groups. The questions are intended to promote consideration of a proposed or existing surveillance system, technology, practice or other initiative in terms of the necessity and proportionality of the system, and of whether stakeholders are being consulted. The third part offers a list of measures that can be taken to increase resilience in a surveillance society, to restrict the scope of surveillance systems to what can be legitimately justified, and to minimise the impacts of surveillance systems on the individual, groups and society
IRISS (Increasing Resilience in Surveillance Societies) FP7 European Research Project, Deliverable 3.2: Surveillance Impact Report
External research report produced for the European Commission as part of the FP7 IRISS project: Increasing Resilience in Surveillance Socieities, containing European case studies on the varying formats of neighbourhood watch, including the cultural and historical factors which may influence the creation of neighbourhood watch groups in the first instance. Overview of neighbourhood watch in the United Kingdom and analysis of the changing role of the police in relation to community policing and the impact which this has had on the primary purpose of neighbourhood watch organisations.This deliverable was written as part of the IRISS project which received funding from the European Unionâs Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under Grant Agreement No. 285593. Additional co-authors: Alessia Ceresa, Chiara Fonio, Walter Peissl, Robert Rothman, Jaro Sterbik Lamina, Ivan Szekely, Beatrix Vissy, Wolfgang BonĂ, Daniel Fischer, Gemma Galdon Clavell, Reinhard Kreissl, Alexander Neumann, Nils Zurawsk
Risiko, sikkerhet og nye trusselbilder. : Myndighetenes vurdering av terrortrusselen i stortingsmeldinger mellom 2001-2008.
Terrorisme omtales gjerne som en av vÄr tids stÞrste trusler, og 11. september 2001 ble et vannskille for norsk terrorbekjempelse. Gjennom en analyse av fire stortingsmeldinger mellom 2001-2008, tar denne avhandlingen for seg regjeringens syn pÄ Norges rolle i den globale innsatsen mot terror, og jeg drÞfter bÄde kortsiktige og langsiktige strategier som fulgte i kjÞlvannet av denne hendelsen. Globalisering, forstÄtt bÄde som homogeniserende og gjensidig avhengighetsskapende prosess, gjÞr at vi mÄ rette blikket ut i verden for Ä forstÄ hva som skjer her hjemme. Kampen mot terror har dyttet oss inn i en ny fase av globaliseringen,ved at kampen mot terror fordrer stadig mer transnasjonalt og sektorovergripende samarbeid, med etableringen av de nye kontrollmekanismene det innebÊrer.
Jeg legger til grunn at vi har tatt steget inn i det Beck kaller et âverdensrisikosamfunnâ, et samfunn der globale trusler, som terror, er prekĂŠre. Globaliseringen har medfĂžrt en utvikling av kontrollteknologi som kan betegnes som paradoksal, fordi den samme tekniske og institusjonelle infrastrukturen som har muliggjort global flyt av varer, kapital og tjenester, ogsĂ„ har skapt nye muligheter for terroristen. Dette tolkes som et teknologisk opprustningskapplĂžp mellom kriminelle og myndighetene, der begge parter ruster opp pĂ„ bakgrunn av en frykt for hva en ensidig nedrustning eller mangel pĂ„ utvikling kan fĂžre til. For Norges vedkommende har et eksempel pĂ„ en slik âopprustningâ vĂŠrt Ă„ gĂ„ fra Ă„ bekjempe terror innenfor eksisterende straffebud, og over til en bredere tilnĂŠrming, med innfĂžring av sĂŠrlovgivning for terrorisme. Dette tolkes som en intensivering av den proaktive bekjempelsesstrategien, som allerede var i gang fĂžr 2001. Nye tiltak legitimeres ut fra en antakelse om at vi plutselig var mer utsatt for terror enn fĂžr, og at en sĂŠregen trussel fordrer sĂŠregne tiltak. BĂ„de i forhold til andre risikofaktorer i verdensrisikosamfunnet, og i forhold til organisert kriminalitet, drĂžftes disse sĂŠregenhetene. Det at terror omtales som en sĂŠrlig trussel, gjĂžr det lettere Ă„ godta omfattende og repressive kontrolltiltak. Ivaretakelsen av noen rettstatlige og demokratiske prinsipper i utviklingen av terrorbekjempelsen diskuteres i
forlengelsen av dette.
Truslene mot Norge har antatt en mer realistisk, heller enn potensiell form. Jeg slÄr fast at Norge pÄ den ene siden har sikkerhetsfremmende trekk, slik som mangel pÄ store innenrikspolitiske konflikter og hÞy grad av konsensus. PÄ den andre siden er vi sÊrlig utsatt for terror av for eksempel handelspolitiske Ärsaker, samt vÄr geostrategiske beliggenhet. Delvis sammenfallende med Nordenhaug og Engenes (2008) konklusjoner finner jeg at Norge ogsÄ har iverksatt en rekke tiltak i kjÞlvannet av 11. september, som kan forstÄs som symbolpolitiske, og at disse til dels kan forklares som ledd i en internasjonal solidaritetslogikk. Jeg har slÄtt fast at det i mitt datamateriale er lagt stÞrre vekt pÄ hva noe er en trussel mot heller enn hva noe er en trussel fra. Fokuset ligger pÄ hva vi mÄ beskytte, og hva regjeringen definerer som attraktive terrormÄl, men at det er mindre fokus pÄ hvem avsenderen av truslene eventuelt skal vÊre. NÄr det gjelder sistnevnte er det imidlertid tydelig at islamsk motivert terrorisme stÄr i fokus etter 2001.
Forventningen om en katastrofe preger det norske sikkerhetsarbeidet, og den subjektive, fabrikkerte usikkerheten som skapes i verdensrisikosamfunnet gir stÞrre aksept for kontroll og overvÄkning, samtidig som en erkjennelse er at vi aldri vil kunne bli helt trygge. Dette innbÊrer at vi mÄ finne oss i Ä leve i et akseptabelt risikonivÄ. Jeg skiller mellom subjektiv (opplevd) og objektiv (faktisk) sikkerhet, og viser hvordan begge deler er av betydning for
myndighetenes terrorbekjempelsesarbeid. BÄde sikkerhetstenkningen og terrorens overhengende fare ser ut til Ä foregÄ pÄ makronivÄ, der de lokale effektene omtales i liten grad. Sikkerhetsarbeidet defineres som et stort og bredt anliggende, som innebÊrer alt fra sikring av infrastruktur, til offshore- og matvareindustrien, og der stadig flere handlinger og situasjoner kan defineres som en sikkerhetstrussel. Vi ser en omvendt proporsjonal utvikling,
der lavere aksept for sikkerhetstrusler etterfÞlges av en hÞyere aksept for sikkerhetsanordninger. DrÞftingen vedrÞrende endringer i trusselbildet fÞr og etter 2001 viser at fokuset har flyttet seg fra nasjonalt til internasjonalt gjennom en eksternalisering av truslene. Dette ble utlÞst av terrorangrepet mot USA, og erkjennelsen av at angrepet var en trussel mot internasjonal fred og sikkerhet. Det nye trusselbildet som beskrives i mitt datamateriale bÊrer preg av en antakelse om at 11. september var en forsmak pÄ hva vil kan vente oss i fremtiden, og at denne fremtiden plutselig har kommet til oss. Jeg drÞfter til slutt endringer i det operative polisiÊre arbeidet, og viser at dette stor grad bÊrer preg av langsiktige og proaktive strategier, der det ikke nÞdvendig Ä sitte og vente pÄ at noe skal skje fÞr man iverksetter tiltak
Exercising Access Rights in Norway
This chapter outlines the experiences of attempting to exercise oneâs right of access in Norway. Using rich, ethnographic examples, this chapter tests how easy or difficult it is for a data subject based in Norway to obtain their personal data, firstly by locating the required information about organisations and their data controllers and secondly by submitting subject access requests to these organisa- tions. The chapter reflects on the differences (if any) between public and private sector organisations in the process of responding to access requests. It also consid- ers the potential for having submitted complaints to the national Data Protection Authority in Norway about the conduct of organisations when researchers submit- ted access requests to them
Exercising Access Rights in Norway
The main legal instrument that translates the Data Protection Directive (DPD) in Norway is the Personal Data Act (PDA), which is complemented by the Personal Data Regulations (PDR), both of 2000. In terms of data protection principles and key definitions, the PDA can be considered substantially in line with the EU framework. Norwegian data protection legislation can be even considered more advanced in specific fields, for example when it comes to the âuse of personal profilesâ and of âautomatic decisionsâ (cf. Sections 21 and 22 PDA). The right to access data (innsynsrett, in Norwegian) is largely mirrored in Section 18 PDA (among many), and it is partially granted not only to data subjects but also to âany personâ (cf. the wording of Art. 12(a) DPD). âOn the booksâ, Norwegian legislation provides for a rather comprehensive right of data access. The main provision is Section 18 of the Personal Data Act (PDA), which provides for both a sort of âgeneralâ right of access to âany personâ and an âindividualâ right of access to information. Beyond Section 18 PDA, data access rights are also reinforced, inter alia, by Section 22 PDA concerning automated decision making, Section 27 PDA concerning data rectification, Section 28 on data minimization, and Sections 16 and 17 PDA imposing time-limits of the data controllersâ responses and establishing that no payment should be asked from the data subject. There is little case law concerning data access at judicial level. The most relevant cases may be found at an administrative level, in the rare cases brought to, and decided by, the Privacy Appeals Board (Personvernnemnda, a Norwegian sui generis institution). This seems to indicate that data access is not a right and a practice that triggers litigation in Norway. No publicly available codes of conduct have been devised so far. There is also no available common template to submit a data access request, with the notable exception of a template to access data from employers, designed and put at disposal by the Data Protection Authority (Datatilsynet, the Norwegian DPA). While the promotion of data access is not among the statutory key functions of the DPA, the Datatilsynet provides some practical information about the rationale and the scope of this right on its website. Regarding the practical reality of exercising oneâs right of access in Norway, we conclude with the following observations: The average approach of public agencies is one of denial, or at least lacking facilitation. Staff seemed to be uninformed about data protection regulation, and either hesitant or lacking appropriate information about the data controller. The public agencies categorized under the domain of security imply a rather time consuming and bureaucratic procedure for identifying the specific information about the data controller. This is due to the fact that âthe policeâ are mentioned as the general data controller, in which no detailed information is given about the office or entity particular to each respective case. The average approach of private agencies was, with the notable exceptions of CCTV and internet-based site, much more facilitating. The staff seemed more prepared to answer questions concerning data protection and could provide information about the data controller
Alterations of monocarboxylate transporter densities during hypoxia in brain and breast tumour cells
BACKGROUND: Tumour cells are characterized by aerobic glycolysis, which provides biomass for tumour proliferation and leads to extracellular acidification through efflux of lactate via monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs). Deficient and spasm-prone tumour vasculature causes variable hypoxia, which favours tumour cell survival and metastases. Brain metastases frequently occur in patients with advanced breast cancer.Effective treatment strategies are therefore needed against brain metastasis from breast carcinoma. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In order to identify differences in the capacity for lactate exchange, human T-47D breast cancer cells and human glioblastoma T98G cells were grown under 4Â % or 20Â % oxygen conditions and examined for MCT1, MCT2 and MCT4 expression on plasma membranes by quantitative post embedding immunogold electron microscopy. Whereas previous studies on MCT expression in tumours have recorded mRNA and protein levels in cell extracts, we examined concentrations of the proteins in the microvillous plasma membrane protrusions specialized for transmembrane transport. RESULTS: In normoxia, both tumour cell types highly expressed the low affinity transporter MCT4, which is thought to mainly mediate monocarboxylate efflux, while for high affinity transport the breast tumour cells preferentially expressed MCT1 and the brain tumour cells resembled brain neurons in expressing MCT2, rather than MCT1. The expressions of MCT1 and MCT4 were upregulated in hypoxic conditions in both breast and brain tumour cells. The expression of MCT2 also increased in hypoxic breast cancer cells, but decreased in hypoxic brain tumour cells. Quantitative immunoblots showed similar hypoxia induced changes in the protein levels. CONCLUSION: The differential expression and regulation of MCTs in the surface membranes of hypoxic and normoxic tumour cells of different types provide a foundation for innovation in tumour therapy through the selective targeting of MCTs. Selective inhibition of various MCTs could be an efficient way to quench an important energy source in both original breast tumour and metastatic cancer tissue in the brain