Food Safety, Health Management, and Biosecurity Characteristics of Poultry Farms in Arusha City, Northern Tanzania, Along a Gradient of Intensification

Background: With the growth, urbanisation, and changing consumption patterns of Tanzania’s human population, new livestock production systems are emerging. Intensification of poultry production may result in opportunities and threats for food safety, such as improved awareness of biosecurity or increasing prevalence of foodborne pathogens including nontyphoidal Salmonella or Campylobacter spp. We conducted a semiquantitative analysis of poultry production systems in northern Tanzania, with emphasis on biosecurity, health management practices, and prevalence of foodborne pathogens, to gain insight into potential associations between intensification and food safety.   Methods: Interviews were conducted with managers of 40 poultry farms, with equal representation of 4 production systems (extensive, semi-intensive, or intensive production with indigenous chickens, and broiler farming). Per farm, up to 10 birds (total, 386) were tested for cloacal shedding of nontyphoidal Salmonella, with a subset of farms tested for Campylobacter. Data were analysed using univariate statistics, and results were discussed during feedback workshops with participating farmers and extension officers.   Results: Clear differences existed between farm types with regard to implementation of biosecurity and health management practices and use of extension services. By contrast, prevalence of foodborne pathogens (6 of 40 farms or 15% for nontyphoidal Salmonella and 13 of 26 farms or 50% for Campylobacter spp.) was not farm-type specific, indicating that it is driven by other factors. Across farming systems, knowledge and awareness of the presence of antimicrobials in poultry feed and the need to abide by post-treatment withdrawal times were limited, as was access to impartial professional advice regarding treatment.   Conclusion: Different control measures may be needed to protect poultry health compared to public health, and improvements in information provision may be needed for both

A systematic review of human and animal leptospirosis in the Pacific Islands reveals pathogen and reservoir diversity

Background The Pacific Islands have environmental conditions highly favourable for transmission of leptospirosis, a neglected zoonosis with highest incidence in the tropics, and Oceania in particular. Recent reports confirm the emergence and outbreaks of leptospirosis in the Pacific Islands, but the epidemiology and drivers of transmission of human and animal leptospirosis are poorly documented, especially in the more isolated and less developed islands. Methodology/Principal findings We conducted a systematic review of human and animal leptospirosis within 25 Pacific Islands (Pls) in Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, as well as Easter Island and Hawaii. We performed a literature search using four international databases for articles published between January 1947 and June 2017. We further included grey literature available on the internet. We identified 148 studies describing leptospirosis epidemiology, but the number of studies varied significantly between Pls. No data were available from four Pls. Human leptospirosis has been reported from 13 Pls, with 63% of all studies conducted in Hawaii, French Polynesia and New Caledonia. Animal leptospirosis has been investigated in 19 Pls and from 14 host species, mainly pigs (18% of studies), cattle (16%) and dogs (11%). Only 13 studies provided information on both human and animal leptospirosis from the same location. Serology results were highly diverse in the region, both in humans and animals. Conclusions/Significance Our study suggests that, as in other tropical regions, leptospirosis is widespread in the Pls while showing some epidemiological heterogeneity. Data are scarce or absent from many Pls. Rodents, cattle, pigs and dogs are all likely to be important carriers, but the relative importance of each animal species in human infection needs to be clarified. Epidemiological surveys with appropriate sampling design, pathogen typing and data analysis are needed to improve our understanding of transmission patterns and to develop effective intervention strategies

A Bayesian spatio-temporal framework to identify outbreaks and examine environmental and social risk factors for infectious diseases monitored by routine surveillance

Spatio-temporal disease patterns can provide clues to etiological pathways, but can be complex to model. Using a flexible Bayesian hierarchical framework, we identify previously undetected space-time clusters and environmental and socio-demographic risk factors for reported giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis at the New Zealand small area level. For giardiasis, there was no seasonal pattern in outbreak probability and an inverse association with density of dairy cattle (β^₁= -0.09, Incidence Risk Ratio (IRR) 0.90 (95% CI 0.84, 0.97) per 1 log increase in cattle/km²). In dairy farming areas, cryptosporidiosis outbreaks were observed in spring. Reported cryptosporidiosis was positively associated with dairy cattle density: β^₁= 0.12, IRR 1.13 (95% CI 1.05, 1.21) per 1 log increase in cattle/km2 and inversely associated with weekly average temperature: β^₁=-0.07, IRR 0.92 (95% CI 0.87, 0.98) per 4°C increase. This framework can be generalized to determine the potential drivers of sporadic cases and latent outbreaks of infectious diseases of public health importance

Towards a “One Health” strategy against leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is an emerging disease; affecting animals, humans and the natural environment, it is a “one health threat”. In spite of its global distribution, its epidemic potential due to climate/ environment changes, its high human mortality rate and socio economic burden, this zoonosis is neglected. For mobilizing more investments in its prevention and control, a global multi- disciplinary and multi-sector network called ”Global Leptospirosis Environmental Action Network,”(GLEAN) has been established. This article reports recent expert’s discussions on prevention and control strategies, based on a One Health concept. It provides an innovative agenda for operational research and for veterinary and public health cooperation

One Health Aotearoa: a transdisciplinary initiative to improve human, animal and environmental health in New Zealand

The following article, Harrison, S., Baker, M.G., Benschop, J. et al. One Health Outlook 2, 4 (2020), was published online by BMC on31 January 2020 at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-020-0011-0. It is © The Author(s) 2020, but is Open Access and is distributedunder the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), whichpermits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that appropriate credit is given to the originalauthor(s) and the source, a link is provided to the Creative Commons license, and any changes are indicated. Permission to republishthe paper here has been obtained from the authors, and no changes have been made to the text

Meat safety in northern Tanzania : inspectors' and slaughter workers' risk perceptions and management

This research was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, the Department for International Development, the Economic and Social Research Council, the Medical Research Council, the Natural Environment Research Council, and the Defense Science and Technology Laboratory, under the UK Zoonoses and Emerging Livestock Systems Initiative (BB/L017679/1 and BB/L018926/1).Through a social scientific lens, this paper considers the risk perceptions and “risk-based decision-making” of two key groups in a northern Tanzanian context: (1) frontline government meat inspectors and health officers charged with ensuring that red meat sold commercially is safe for people to consume, and (2) the workers who slaughter and process cattle and red meat prior to its sale in rural butcheries. In contrast to techno-scientific understandings of disease risk and “rational” approaches to its management, this paper foregrounds the role of social, economic and institutional context in shaping the perceptions and practices around meat safety of these actors whose daily, close proximity to meat means they play a significant role in mitigating potential meat-borne disease. We show how limited resources, and a combination of scientific and local knowledge and norms result in “situated expertise” and particular forms of risk perception and practice which both enhance and compromise meat safety in different ways. Actors' shared concerns with what is visible, ensures that visibly unsafe or abnormal meat is excluded from sale, and that infrastructure and meat is kept “clean” and free of certain visible contaminants such as soil or, on occasion, feces. While such contaminants serve as a good proxy for pathogen presence, meat inspectors and especially slaughter workers were much less aware of or concerned with invisible pathogens that may compromise meat safety. The role of process and meat handling did not figure very strongly in their concerns. Microorganisms such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, which can easily be transferred onto meat and persist in slaughter and meat sale environments, went unacknowledged. Although health officers expressed more concern with hygiene and meat handling, their influence over slaughter process and butchery operations was unclear. Ultimately, recognizing the perceptions and practices of frontline actors who engage with meat, and the ways in which social, material and institutional realities shape these, is important for understanding how decisions about risk and meat safety are made in the complexity and context of everyday life, and thus for finding effective ways to support them to further enhance their work.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Meat safety in Tanzania’s value chain : experiences, explanations and expectations in butcheries and eateries

This research was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, the Department for International Development, the Economic and Social Research Council, the Medical Research Council, the Natural Environment Research Council, and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, under the UK Zoonoses and Emerging Livestock Systems Initiative (Grant Numbers BB/L017679/1 and BB/L018926/1).Urbanisation is associated with changes in consumption patterns and food production processes. These patterns and processes can increase or decrease the risks of outbreaks of foodborne diseases and are generally accompanied by changes in food safety policies and regulations about food handling. This affects consumers, as well as people economically engaged in the food value chain. This study looks at Tanzania’s red meat value chain—which in its totality involves about one third of the population—and focuses on the knowledge, attitudes and reported practices of operators of butcheries and eateries with regards to meat safety in an urban and in a rural environment. We interviewed 64 operators about their experiences with foodborne diseases and their explanations and expectations around meat safety, with a particular emphasis on how they understood their own actions regarding food safety risks vis-à-vis regulations. We found operators of eateries emphasising their own agency in keeping meat safe, whereas operators of butcheries—whose products are more closely inspected—relied more on official inspections. Looking towards meat safety in the future, interviewees in rural areas were, relative to their urban counterparts, more optimistic, which we attribute to rural operators’ shorter and relatively unmediated value chains.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Prevalence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in African food animals and meat: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Campylobacter and Salmonella, particularly non-typhoidal Salmonella, are important bacterial enteric pathogens of humans which are often carried asymptomatically in animal reservoirs. Bacterial foodborne infections, including those derived from meat, are associated with illness and death globally but the burden is disproportionately high in Africa. Commercial meat production is increasing and intensifying in many African countries, creating opportunities and threats for food safety. Methods: Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched six databases for English language studies published through June 2016, that reported Campylobacter or Salmonella carriage or infection prevalence in food animals and contamination prevalence in food animal products from African countries. A random effects meta-analysis and multivariable logistic regression were used to estimate the species-specific prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter and assess relationships between sample type and region and the detection or isolation of either pathogen. Results: Seventy-three studies reporting Campylobacter and 187 studies reporting Salmonella across 27 African countries were represented. Adjusted prevalence calculations estimate Campylobacter detection in 37.7% (95% CI 31.6–44.3) of 11,828 poultry samples; 24.6% (95% CI 18.0–32.7) of 1975 pig samples; 17.8% (95% CI 12.6–24.5) of 2907 goat samples; 12.6% (95% CI 8.4–18.5) of 2382 sheep samples; and 12.3% (95% CI 9.5–15.8) of 6545 cattle samples. Salmonella were detected in 13.9% (95% CI 11.7–16.4) of 25,430 poultry samples; 13.1% (95% CI 9.3–18.3) of 5467 pig samples; 9.3% (95% CI 7.2–12.1) of 2988 camel samples; 5.3% (95% CI 4.0–6.8) of 72,292 cattle samples; 4.8% (95% CI 3.6–6.3) of 11,335 sheep samples; and 3.4% (95% CI 2.2–5.2) of 4904 goat samples. ‘External’ samples (e.g. hide, feathers) were significantly more likely to be contaminated by both pathogens than ‘gut’ (e.g. faeces, cloaca) while meat and organs were significantly less likely to be contaminated than gut samples. Conclusions: This study demonstrated widespread prevalence of Campylobacter species and Salmonella serovars in African food animals and meat, particularly in samples of poultry and pig origin. Source attribution studies could help ascertain which food animals are contributing to human campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis and direct potential food safety interventions

Street-Level Diplomacy and Local Enforcement for Meat Safety in Northern Tanzania: Kowledge, Pragmatism and Trust

With increasing demand for red meat in Tanzania comes heightened potential for zoonotic infections in animals and humans that disproportionately affect poor communities. A range of frontline government employees work to protect public health, providing services for people engaged in animal-based livelihoods (livestock owners and butchers), and enforcing meat safety and food premises standards. In contrast to literature which emphasises the inadequacy of extension support and food safety policy implementation in low- and middle-income countries, this paper foregrounds the ‘street-level diplomacy’ deployed by frontline actors operating in challenging contexts

Prevalence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in African food animals and meat: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This research article was published by Elsevier in 2019Background: Campylobacter and Salmonella, particularly non-typhoidal Salmonella, are important bacterial en- teric pathogens of humans which are often carried asymptomatically in animal reservoirs. Bacterial foodborne infections, including those derived from meat, are associated with illness and death globally but the burden is disproportionately high in Africa. Commercial meat production is increasing and intensifying in many African countries, creating opportunities and threats for food safety. Methods: Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched six databases for English language studies published through June 2016, that reported Campylobacter or Salmonella carriage or infection prevalence in food animals and contamination prevalence in food animal products from African countries. A random effects meta-analysis and multivariable logistic re- gression were used to estimate the species-specific prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter and assess re- lationships between sample type and region and the detection or isolation of either pathogen. Results: Seventy-three studies reporting Campylobacter and 187 studies reporting Salmonella across 27 African countries were represented. Adjusted prevalence calculations estimate Campylobacter detection in 37.7% (95% CI 31.6–44.3) of 11,828 poultry samples; 24.6% (95% CI 18.0–32.7) of 1975 pig samples; 17.8% (95% CI 12.6–24.5) of 2907 goat samples; 12.6% (95% CI 8.4–18.5) of 2382 sheep samples; and 12.3% (95% CI 9.5–15.8) of 6545 cattle samples. Salmonella were detected in 13.9% (95% CI 11.7–16.4) of 25,430 poultry samples; 13.1% (95% CI 9.3–18.3) of 5467 pig samples; 9.3% (95% CI 7.2–12.1) of 2988 camel samples; 5.3% (95% CI 4.0–6.8) of 72,292 cattle samples; 4.8% (95% CI 3.6–6.3) of 11,335 sheep samples; and 3.4% (95% CI 2.2–5.2) of 4904 goat samples. ‘External’ samples (e.g. hide, feathers) were significantly more likely to be contaminated by both pathogens than ‘gut’ (e.g. faeces, cloaca) while meat and organs were significantly less likely to be contaminated than gut samples. Conclusions: This study demonstrated widespread prevalence of Campylobacter species and Salmonella serovars in African food animals and meat, particularly in samples of poultry and pig origin. Source attribution studies could help ascertain which food animals are contributing to human campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis and direct potential food safety interventions