The 4R Model of Mood and Emotion for Sustainable Mental Health in Organisational Settings

Organisations are aware of the need to maintain the mental health of their employees. People’s capacity to recognise and manage their moods and emotions is critical to sustainable mental health, performance, and quality of life, while failure to do so can result in underperformance, disengagement, and in some cases, mental illness. Employees of organisations that provide an appropriate strategy and support are likely to experience sustained psychological and mental health benefits. In this paper, we synthesise previous research into a theoretical framework distinguishing mood from emotion via both top-down (cognitive) and bottom-up (biological) factors. We propose a 4R model to help individuals Recognise a mood as distinct from an emotion, or vice-versa, and respond in one of three ways; Restore, Resolve, or Regulate. The model posits mood as an interoceptive signal of internal biological homeostasis, and emotion as a signal of external, often social, events that disrupt homeostasis; mood and emotion serve as internal and external bio-affective feedback loops, respectively. We propose that mood is modified positively by the restoration of homeostasis, whereas emotion is modified positively by behavioural resolution of the emotion-eliciting event. The 4R model is low-cost, preventative, and can be applied peer-to-peer in organisations without expert supervision

Different durations within the method of best practice affect the parameters of the speed-duration relationship

The aim of the study was to determine whether estimates of the speed-duration relationship are affected using different time-trial (TT) field-based testing protocols, where exhaustive times were located within the generally recommended durations of 2 to 15 min. Ten triathletes (mean±SD age: 31.0±5.7yrs; height: 1.81±0.05m; body mass: 76.5±6.8kg) performed two randomly assigned field-tests to determine critical speed (CS) and the total distance covered above CS (D´). CS and D´ were obtained using two different protocols comprising three TT that were interspersed by 60 min passive rest. The TTs were 12, 7, and 3 min in Protocol I and 10, 5, and 2 min in Protocol II. A linear relationship of speed vs. the inverse of time (s=D´x1/t+CS) was used to determine parameter estimates. Significant differences were found for CS (P=.026), but not for D´ (P=.123). The effect size for CS (d=.305) was considered small, whilst that for D´ was considered moderate (d=.742). CS was significantly correlated between protocols (r=.934; P<.001), however, no correlation was found for D´ (r=.053; P=.884). The 95% limits of agreement were ±0.28m∙s-1 and ±73.9m for CS and D´, respectively. These findings demonstrate that the choice of exhaustive times within commonly accepted durations, results in different estimates of CS and D´ and thus protocols cannot be used interchangeably. The use of a consistent protocol is therefore recommended, when investigating or monitoring the speed-duration relationship estimates in well-trained athletes

Incorporating methods and findings from neuroscience to better understand placebo and nocebo effects in sport

Placebo and nocebo effects are a factor in sports performance. However, the majority of published studies in sport science are descriptive and speculative regarding mechanisms. It is therefore not unreasonable for the sceptic to argue that placebo and nocebo effects in sport are illusory, and might be better explained by variations in phenomena such as motivation. It is likely that, in sport at least, placebo and nocebo effects will remain in this empirical grey area until researchers provide stronger mechanistic evidence. Recent research in neuroscience has identified a number of consistent, discrete and interacting neurobiological and physiological pathways associated with placebo and nocebo effects, with many studies reporting data of potential interest to sport scientists, for example relating to pain, fatigue and motor control. Findings suggest that placebos and nocebos result in activity of the opioid, endocannabinoid and dopamine neurotransmitter systems, brain regions including the motor cortex and striatum, and measureable effects on the autonomic nervous system. Many studies have demonstrated that placebo and nocebo effects associated with a treatment, for example an inert treatment presented as an analgesic or stimulant, exhibit mechanisms similar or identical to the verum or true treatment. Such findings suggest the possibility of a wide range of distinct placebo and nocebo mechanisms that might influence sports performance. In the present paper, we present some of the findings from neuroscience. Focussing on fatigue as an outcome and caffeine as vehicle, we propose three approaches that researchers in sport might incorporate in their studies in order to better elucidate mechanisms of placebo/nocebo effects on performance

Differential Effects of Aerobic Exercise, Resistance Training and Combined Exercise Modalities on Cholesterol and the Lipid Profile:Review, Synthesis and Recommendations

There is a direct relationship between chronically elevated cholesterol levels (dyslipidaemia) and coronary heart disease. A reduction in total cholesterol is considered the gold standard in preventative cardiovascular medicine. Exercise has been shown to have positive impacts on the pathogenesis, symptomatology and physical fitness of individuals with dyslipidaemia, and to reduce cholesterol levels. The optimal mode, frequency, intensity and duration of exercise for improvement of cholesterol levels are, however, yet to be identified. This review assesses the evidence from 13 published investigations and two review articles that have addressed the effects of aerobic exercise, resistance training and combined aerobic and resistance training on cholesterol levels and the lipid profile. The data included in this review confirm the beneficial effects of regular activity on cholesterol levels and describe the impacts of differing volumes and intensities of exercise upon different types of cholesterol. Evidence-based exercise recommendations are presented, aimed at facilitating the prescription and delivery of interventions in order to optimize cholesterol levels

The iceberg has melted: theoretical, measurement and applied developments in the area of mood and physical activity

Investigations of relationships between mood and physical activity have provided a focus for researchers for decades; led by William P. Morgan's pioneering research efforts since the 1960s. Generally, the central tenets of Morgan's (1985) mental health model, which proposed an inverse relationship between psychopathology and sport performance, have stood the test of time (see Raglin, 2001). However, one proposal associated with Morgan, immortalised in a 1980 article Test of Champions: The Iceberg Profile, in which he espoused the importance of a mood profile characterised by low anger, confusion, depression, fatigue and tension, and high vigour, has been the subject of much critical debate in the sport psychology literature (e.g., Renger, 1993; Rowley, Landers, Kyllo, & Etnier, 1995; Terry, 1995, Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000), which continues to the present time. The presentations in this symposium will address a wide range of theoretical, measurement and applied issues concerned with the inter-relationships between mood and physical activity, both in the sport and exercise domains. First, Dr. Chris Beedie will address definitional issues and their impact on measurement. In particular, he will discuss how the origins of the POMS influence contemporary uses of the measure, highlight the limitations of single adjective items, and reflect on how distinctions between moods and emotions have significant implications for researchers and practitioners. Next, Prof. Andy Lane will address the theoretical basis for research into mood and performance and assess how this influences the measurement of mood. In doing so, he will review the way in which theoretical developments have guided measurement and will propose future challenges for researchers within the field. Finally, Prof. Peter Terry will provide an overview of the implications for practitioners. He will focus discussion on some of the many applied uses for mood profiling, identify guidelines for best practice, and critically appraise the use of mood management strategies

Distinguishing emotion and mood components of anxiety among professional rugby players

Research has demonstrated that emotion and mood can be distinguished empirically in line with generally accepted theoretical predictions (Beedie, Lane, & Terry, 2001, Journal of Sports Sciences. 19, 69-70). Theoretically, emotion is brief and intense, whereas mood is relatively enduring and unfocused. Emotion results from, and is focused on, specific events, and signals to the individual the state of the environment in relation to goal-directed behaviour; whereas mood does not result from any specific event of which the individual is aware, and signals the state of the self in relation to existential, life issues. The consequences of emotion are mostly behavioural, whereas those of mood are mostly cognitive. Psychometrically, a clear distinction between the constructs has proven problematic, as states such as anxiety may occur as both emotions and moods. The present study tested the factorial validity of a measure developed by Beedie et al. (2001), the Emotion and Mood Components of Anxiety Questionnaire (EMCA-Q), which is designed to provide separate indicators of emotion and mood responses . The EMCA-Q measures emotion and mood via two five-item scales of statements describing emotion (i.e., anxiety focused on particular events and goals, such as 'I am nervous about the event' and 'I am anxious about not performing well in this event') and mood (i.e., anxiety neither caused by nor focused on a particular event, such as 'I feel nervous at the moment for no particular reason' and 'at the moment I am anxious about life in general'). Participants were professional male rugby players (N = 102: Age M = 26.06 yr., SD = 3.99 yr.). Participants completed the EMCA-Q approximately 2 hours before competition

Development and validation of the emotion and mood components of Anxiety Questionnaire

Mood and emotion research in sport psychology is typically conducted using single adjective checklists such as the Profile of Mood States. A limitation of single adjective checklists is that they assess the intensity of the affective response but not the context, and thus cannot reliably distinguish mood from emotion. Recent research has emphasized the importance of distinguishing mood from emotion both theoretically (Lane & Terry, 2000) and practically (Jones, 2003).The purpose of the present research was to develop a self-report measure that distinguishes mood from emotion. No such method currently exists, despite an extensive literature attesting to theoretical distinctions between the two (see Ekman & Davidson, 1994). Beedie, Lane and Terry (2001) proposed that mood and emotion can be distinguished empirically. Their proposal was made on the basis of content analyses of 65 published papers addressing distinctions between emotion and mood, and of interview data from 106 participants relating to the same question (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, in press). The present study reports the development and validation of the measure: The Emotion and Mood Components of Anxiety Questionnaire (EMCA-Q)

Placebo effects in competitive sport: Qualitative data

The paper examines the placebo effect in sports performance. The possibility that the placebo effect is a more common phenomenon than the quantity of published research would suggest is briefly addressed. It is suggested that the placebo control design often used in sports performance research masks any placebo effects and thus presents a false picture of the mechanisms underlying performance-enhancing interventions in the real world. An electronic survey was sent to 48 competitive, international and professional athletes. Questions related to the placebo effect in competitive sport. Thirty responses were received. Data indicate that the majority (97%) of respondents believe that the placebo effect can exert an influence on sports performance, and that a significant number (73%) have experienced what they defined as a placebo effect. Inductive content analysis reveals that these experiences fall into several categories such as explicit placebo effects, inadvertent false beliefs, ritual and reverse placebo effects. Furthermore, 10 respondents (33%) offer explanations as to the nature of the placebo effect. Again, inductive content analysis reveals that these explanations fall into several categories including deliberate changes in competitive strategy, belief/expectancy, faith in a third party, and marketing. Overall, responses support previous experimental research and anecdotal reports that have found a relationship between belief and sports performance. It is suggested that further research be structured to not simply control for the placebo effect, but to elucidate it

The Role of Glucose in Self-Control: Another Look at the Evidence and an Alternative Conceptualization

The strength model suggests that self-control relies on a limited resource. One candidate for this resource is glucose. Counter to the proposals of the glucose hypothesis, this study argues that the resource issue is one of allocation, not of limited supply. It addresses the argument from three perspectives: the evolution of mental processes at the species level, the adaptation of these same processes at the individual level, and the physiology of glucose transport. It is argued here that the brain has both sufficient resources and resource delivery mechanisms with which to support self-control but that these resources are allocated in accordance with personal priorities. As an alternative to the limited resource model, the current study proposes a resource-allocation model of self-control and presents several testable hypotheses