18 research outputs found

    Complementary Sensory and Associative Microcircuitry in Primary Olfactory Cortex

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    The three-layered primary olfactory (piriform) cortex is the largest component of the olfactory cortex. Sensory and intracortical inputs converge on principal cells in the anterior piriform cortex (aPC).Wecharacterize organization principles of the sensory and intracortical microcircuitry of layer II and III principal cells in acute slices of rat aPC using laser-scanning photostimulation and fast two-photon population CaÂČâș imaging. Layer II and III principal cells are set up on a superficial-to-deep vertical axis. We found that the position on this axis correlates with input resistance and bursting behavior. These parameters scale with distinct patterns of incorporation into sensory and associative microcircuits, resulting in a converse gradient of sensory and intracortical inputs. In layer II, sensory circuits dominate superficial cells, whereas incorporation in intracortical circuits increases with depth. Layer III pyramidal cells receive more intracortical inputs than layer II pyramidal cells, but with an asymmetric dorsal offset. This microcircuit organization results in a diverse hybrid feedforward/recurrent network of neurons integrating varying ratios of intracortical and sensory input depending on a cell’s position on the superficial-to-deep vertical axis. Since burstiness of spiking correlates with both the cell’s location on this axis and its incorporation in intracortical microcircuitry, the neuronal output mode may encode a given cell’s involvement in sensory versus associative processing

    Early Cortical Changes in Gamma Oscillations in Alzheimer’s Disease

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    The entorhinal cortices in the temporal lobe of the brain are key structures relaying memory related information between the neocortex and the hippocampus. The medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) routes spatial information, whereas the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) routes predominantly olfactory information to the hippocampus. Gamma oscillations are known to coordinate information transfer between brain regions by precisely timing population activity of neuronal ensembles. Here, we studied the organization of in vitro gamma oscillations in the MEC and LEC of the transgenic (tg) amyloid precursor protein (APP)-presenilin 1 (PS1) mouse model of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) at 4–5 months of age. In vitro gamma oscillations using the kainate model peaked between 30–50 Hz and therefore we analyzed the oscillatory properties in the 20–60 Hz range. Our results indicate that the LEC shows clear alterations in frequency and power of gamma oscillations at an early stage of AD as compared to the MEC. The gamma-frequency oscillation slows down in the LEC and also the gamma power in dorsal LEC is decreased as early as 4–5 months in the tg APP-PS1 mice. The results of this study suggest that the timing of olfactory inputs from LEC to the hippocampus might be affected at an early stage of AD, resulting in a possible erroneous integration of the information carried by the two input pathways to the hippocampal subfields.Peer Reviewe

    VGLUT2 functions as a differentia marker for hippocampal output neurons

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    The subiculum is the gatekeeper between the hippocampus and cortical areas. Yet, the lack of a pyramidal cell-specific marker gene has made the analysis of the subicular area very difficult. Here we report that the vesicular-glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) functions as a specific marker gene for subicular burst-firing neurons, and demonstrate that VGLUT2-Cre mice allow for Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)-assisted connectivity analysis

    VGLUT2 Functions as a Differential Marker for Hippocampal Output Neurons

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    The subiculum is the gatekeeper between the hippocampus and cortical areas. Yet, the lack of a pyramidal cell-specific marker gene has made the analysis of the subicular area very difficult. Here we report that the vesicular-glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) functions as a specific marker gene for subicular burst-firing neurons, and demonstrate that VGLUT2-Cre mice allow for Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)-assisted connectivity analysis

    Excitatory microcircuits within superficial layers of the medial entorhinal cortex

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    The distinctive firing pattern of grid cells in the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) supports its role in the representation of space. It is widely believed that the hexagonal firing field of grid cells emerges from neural dynamics that depends on the local microcircuitry. However, local networks within the MEC are still not sufficiently characterized. Here, applying up to eight simultaneous whole-cell recordings in acute brain slices, we demonstrate the existence of unitary excitatory connections between principal neurons in the superficial layers of the MEC. In particular, we find prevalent feed-forward excitation from pyramidal neurons in layer III and layer II onto stellate cells in layer II, which might contribute to the generation or the inheritance of grid-cell patterns

    VGLUT2 functions as a differential marker for hippocampal output neurons

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    The subiculum is the gatekeeper between the hippocampus and cortical areas. Yet, the lack of a pyramidal cell-specific marker gene has made the analysis of the subicular area very difficult. Here we report that the vesicular-glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) functions as a specific marker gene for subicular burst-firing neurons, and demonstrate that VGLUT2-Cre mice allow for Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)-assisted connectivity analysis

    Layer 3 Pyramidal Cells in the Medial Entorhinal Cortex Orchestrate Up-Down States and Entrain the Deep Layers Differentially

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    Up-down states (UDS) are synchronous cortical events of neuronal activity during non-REM sleep. The medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) exhibits robust UDS during natural sleep and under anesthesia. However, little is known about the generation and propagation of UDS-related activity in the MEC. Here, we dissect the circuitry underlying UDS generation and propagation across layers in the MEC using both in vivo and in vitro approaches. We provide evidence that layer 3 (L3) MEC is crucial in the generation and maintenance of UDS in the MEC. Furthermore, we find that the two sublayers of the L5 MEC participate differentially during UDS. Our findings show that L5b, which receives hippocampal output, is strongly innervated by UDS activity originating in L3 MEC. Our data suggest that L5b acts as a coincidence detector during information transfer between the hippocampus and the cortex and thereby plays an important role in memory encoding and consolidation

    Mikroschaltkreise des entorhinalen Cortex

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    Neuronal microcircuits are the fundamental units of brain functions. Such microcircuits are at the interface between the elementary building blocks, namely excitatory and inhibitory neurons and functional neuronal networks. The structure of neuronal microcircuits matures over development and stabilizes in the adult. Developmental or environmental insults often result in misconnected circuits. By studying normal or misconnected neuronal microcircuits one can better understand the underlying functions in physiological or pathological (neurodegenerative diseases) conditions. In my doctoral thesis, I aimed to understand the functional microcircuitry of the entorhinal cortex, in particular the medial entorhinal cortex (mEC), in normal functions and disease. Past research has focused mainly on the anatomical circuitry of the entorhinal cortex. However, recent in vivo work has revealed the functional relevance of the entorhinal cortex as an independent computational unit serving a key role in spatial navigation and not simply an information hub between the cortex and hippocampus. The chronological gap between structural and functional studies has led to many open questions. In addition the mEC has been implicated heavily in Alzheimer’s disease, temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), Schizophrenia and many other neuropsychiatric disorders. In chapters 1 and 2, I introduce the concept of a neuronal microcircuit and emphasize the need to understand it both at the structural and functional levels. Further, I introduce the mEC’s role in spatial navigation and pathophysiology and the importance of looking at the underlying microcircuitry which might further our understanding in these directions. In chapter 3, I discuss the available techniques for studying neuronal microcircuitry, introduce the fast-scanning photostimulation software and in depth compare its performance to the other standard techniques and software available. By mapping the intralaminar synaptic connectivity of Layer 2 stellate cells (L2S) of the mEC as a model cell, the applicability, resolution and repeatability of the software was validated. Further, the detection algorithm for distinguishing photo-induced events from background events was tested and proven to be capable of faithfully differentiating between the two kinds of photo-induced events – the direct responses and the synaptic inputs. In chapter 4, the main findings of the functional microcircuitry of the two projection neurons in the L2 mEC – Layer 2 stellate cell (L2S) and the Layer 2 pyramidal cell (L2P) – are presented. Results reveal the existence of excitatory microcircuits with a cell-type–specific separation of intralaminar recurrent connections and ascending interlaminar feedback connections as well as modular organization. L2Ss display more intralaminar recurrent connectivity; in comparison, L2Ps receive a larger fraction of the ascending interlaminar feedback connectivity from deep layers of the mEC, constituting the hippocampal feedback loop. Ascending interlaminar feedback connections to L2 are spatially organized in modules with distinct properties for the two cell types. Neuronal synchrony is an inherent property of neuronal microcircuits. Brain rhythms of different temporal frequencies, especially gamma oscillations, have been attributed important roles in binding information from several brain areas. In chapter 5, a model for studying the role of mEC microcircuitry in neuronal synchrony and excitability is assessed, the molecular mechanisms behind such synchrony and pathological consequences of hyperexcitability. From the results, we conclude that GluK2 containing kainate receptors are crucial players in the kainate- induced gamma oscillations in the superficial layers of the mEC. Layer 3 pyramidal cells (L3Ps) contain KARs that are limited to the somatodendritic region. The specific expression and distribution of GluK2 containing KARs on L3Ps might render them sensitive to seizure related insults as is often seen in animal models of TLE (eg: kainate model, pilocarpine model etc.). Since epilepsy can result from hyperexcitable neuronal networks, there are more than one way and region where and how this might occur. As an outlook, from another study that I was involved in, we propose the role of a novel mediator of synaptic transmission, PRG-1 (plasticity related gene-1) in modulating excitability in neuronal networks. PRG-1 is found exclusively at glutamatergic synapses on the postsynaptic side and modulates synaptic transmission. Genetic deletion of PRG-1 results in severe hyperexcitability (chapter 5) in the hippocampus leading to pathological seizures. Taken together these findings reveal the importance of studying the functional microcircuitry of a cortical region in normal and pathological conditions. The cell-type specific and modular organization of inputs upon the L2S and L2P further the knowledge as to how information is transferred within the local microcircuitry of the entorhinal cortex. The deep layer inputs have been implicated to be of pivotal importance for the L2 cells to perform its role in spatial navigation. Here, we provide the first direct functional evidence for the existence of such input to the L2 cells. Secondly, the characterization of the KARs on L3Ps is a step forward to understand the KAR-mediated synaptic transmission and its contribution towards neuronal synchrony and excitability in the mEC. Further, the identification of a novel mediator of excitability at the synapse, PRG-1, show a critical way in which neuronal networks are finely tuned. The balance between excitation and inhibition is needed to maintain the integrity of neuronal microcircuits. In conclusion, my doctoral thesis makes a contribution towards understanding the functional microcircuitry in the medial entorhinal cortex and answers questions explaining the role of microcircuit-forming synapses in physiological and pathophysiological conditions.Neuronale Mikroschaltkreise bilden die elementaren Einheiten von Hirnfunktionen. Solche Mikroschaltkreise verbinden die elementaren Bausteine, dh. erregende und inhibitorische Neurone zu funktionalen neuronalen Netzwerken. Die Struktur neuronaler Mikroschaltkreise reift wĂ€hrend der Entwicklung und stabilisiert sich im adulten Organismus. Entwicklungs- oder umgebungsbedingte BeeintrĂ€chtigungen haben oft fehlerhaft verknĂŒpfte KreislĂ€ufe zur Folge. Die Betrachtung normaler und falsch verknĂŒpfter Mikroschaltkreise ermöglicht das bessere VerstĂ€ndnis der zugrunde liegenden Funktionen unter physiologischen oder pathologischen (neuropsychiatrischen Krankheiten) Bedingungen. Das Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit ist das VerstĂ€ndnis des funktionalen Mikroschaltkreises des entorhinalen Cortex, ins Besondere des medialen entorhinalen Cortex (mEC), in seiner gesunden Funktion und auch im Zusammenhang mit Krankheiten. FrĂŒhere Studien konzentrierten sich hauptsĂ€chlich auf die anatomische Verschaltung des entorhinalen Cortex. JĂŒngste in vivo Forschungen offenbarten jedoch die funktionale Relevanz des entorhinalen Cortex als unabhĂ€ngige Recheneinheit, die bei der rĂ€umlichen Orientierung eine SchlĂŒsselrolle einnimmt und keineswegs nur als Informationsdrehkreuz zwischen Cortex und Hippocampus dient. Die zeitliche Diskrepanz zwischen strukturellen und funktionalen Studien warf viele offene Fragen auf. Desweiteren wurde der mEC in Zusammenhang mit Alzheimer, Temporallappenepilepsie (TLE), Schizophrenie und vielen anderen neuroentwicklungs- und psychiatrischen Erkrankungen gebracht. In den Kapiteln 1 und 2 leite ich das Konzept des neuronalen Mikroschaltkreises ein und gehe auf die Notwendigkeit des VerstĂ€ndnisses auf struktureller und funktionaler Ebene ein. Außerdem erlĂ€utere ich die Rolle des mEC bei der rĂ€umlichen Orientierung und in der Pathophysiologie, sowie die Wichtigkeit die zugrunde liegenden Mikroschaltkreise zu betrachten, welche unser VerstĂ€ndnis in obigen ZusammenhĂ€ngen erweitern dĂŒrften. In Kapitel 3 diskutiere ich die zur Untersuchung neuronaler Mikroschaltkreise verfĂŒgbaren Techniken, stelle die schnell abtastende Photostimulationssoftware vor und vergleiche deren Leistungsvermögen mit dem anderer Standardtechniken und Softwares. Die Anwendbarkeit, Auflösung und Reproduzierbarkeit der Software wurde an Hand der Kartierung der intralaminaren synaptischen VerknĂŒpfungen der Schicht 2 Sternzellen (L2S) des mEC als Modellzelle bestĂ€tigt. Desweiteren ĂŒberprĂŒfte ich den Detektionsalgorithmus zur Unterscheidung photo-induzierter Ereignisse von Hintergrundereignissen und bewies außerdem dessen VerlĂ€sslichkeit zwischen den beiden Arten photo-induzierter Ereignisse, direkte Antworten und synaptische EingĂ€nge, zu differenzieren. In Kapitel 4 lege ich die Kernergebnisse bezĂŒglich der funktionalen Mikroschaltkreise der beiden Projektionsneuronen der Schicht 2 des mEC, L2S und Schicht 2 Pyramidenzellen (L2P), dar. Meine Ergebnisse offenbaren das Vorhandensein erregender Mikroschaltkreise mit einer zelltypspezifischen Trennung zwischen intralaminaren rekurrenten Verbindungen und aufsteigenden interlaminaren RĂŒckkopplungsverbindungen sowie eine modulare Organisation. L2S zeigen hauptsĂ€chlich intralaminare rekurrente VerknĂŒpfungen wohingegen L2P mehrheitlich Eingang von aufsteigenden interlaminaren RĂŒckkopplungsverbindungen aus den tiefen Schichten des mEC erhalten. Letztere bilden den hippocampalen RĂŒckfĂŒhrkreis. Aufsteigende interlaminare RĂŒckkopplungsverbindungen nach Schicht 2 sind in rĂ€umlichen Modulen organisiert welche fĂŒr die beiden Zelltypen verschiedene Eigenschaften aufweisen. Neuronale SynchronitĂ€t ist eine inherente Eigenschaft neuronaler Mikroschaltkreise. Hirnrythmen verschiedener zeitlicher Frequenzen, ins Besondere Gamma Oszillationen, werden wichtige Rollen beim ZusammenfĂŒhren von Informationen aus verschiedenen Hirnregionen zugeschrieben. In Kapitel 5 beschĂ€ftige ich mich mit einem Modell zur Untersuchung der Rolle von mEC Mikroschaltkreisen im Zusammenhang mit neuronaler SynchronitĂ€t und Erregbarkeit, den zugrunde liegenden molekularen Mechanismen dieser SynchronitĂ€t und den pathologischen Folgen von Übererregbarkeit. Aus den Ergebnissen dieser Studien schlussfolgere ich, dass GluK2 enthaltende Kainatrezeptoren eine SchlĂŒsselrolle bei durch Kainat induzierten Gammaoszillationen in den oberflĂ€chlichen Schichten des mEC einnehmen. KARs der Schicht 3 Pyramidenzellen (L3Ps) sind auf die somatodendritischen Bereiche beschrĂ€nkt. Die spezielle Expression und Verteilung von GluK2 enthaltenden KARs auf L3Ps könnte sie empfĂ€nglich fĂŒr mit epileptischen AnfĂ€llen in Beziehung stehende krankhafte VerĂ€nderungen machen, wie sie oft bei Tiermodellen fĂŒr TLE (z.B. Kainatmodell, Pilokarpinmodell, etc.) beobachtet werden. Da sich Epilepsie aus ĂŒbererregbaren neuronalen Netzwerken entwickeln kann, gibt es mehr als einen Weg wie und wo dies erfolgen kann. Als Ausblick diskutiere ich die Rolle eines neuartigen Vermittlers synaptischer Übertragung, PRG-1 (plasticity related gene-1) bei der Modulation von Erregbarkeit in neuronalen Netzwerken. Dieser wurde in einer anderen Studie, an der ich beteiligt war, untersucht. PRG-1 findet sich ausschließlich an glutamatergen Synapsen auf der postsynaptischen Seite und moduliert die synaptische Übertragung. Genetische Deletion von PRG-1 fĂŒhrt zu schwerer Übererregbarkeit (Kapitel 5) des Hippocampus welche in der Entstehung pathologischer AnfĂ€lle mĂŒndet. Zusammenfassend zeigen diese Erkenntnisse die Wichtigkeit funktionale Mikroschaltkreise eines cortikalen Bereichs unter normalen wie auch unter pathologischen Bedingungen zu untersuchen auf. Die zelltypspezifische und modulare Organisation von Inputs auf L2S und L2P erweitern unser Wissen darĂŒber wie Information innerhalb eines lokalen Mikroschaltkreises des entorhinalen Cortex ĂŒbermittelt wird. Den EingĂ€ngen der tiefen Schichten wird eine herausragende Rolle fĂŒr L2 Zellen bei deren Funktion bei der rĂ€umlichen Orientierung zugeschrieben. Diese Arbeit zeigt die ersten funktionalen Beweise der Existenz solcher EingĂ€nge auf L2 Zellen. Desweiteren ist die Charakterisierung der KARs auf L3Ps ein weiterer Schritt zum VerstĂ€ndnis KAR-vermittelter synaptischer Übertragung und deren Beitrag zu neuronaler SynchronitĂ€t und Erregbarkeit im mEC. Die Identifikation eines neuartigen Mediators der Erregbarkeit von Synapsen, PRG-1, zeigt eine entscheidende Möglichkeit wie neuronale Netzwerke genau reguliert werden können. Das Gleichgewicht zwischen Erregung und Inhibition ist notwendig um die IntegritĂ€t neuronaler Mikroschaltkreise zu bewahren. In ihrer Gesamtheit leistet meine Doktorarbeit einen Beitrag zum VerstĂ€ndnis der funktionalen Mikroschaltkreise im medialen entorhinalen Cortex und beantwortet Fragen zu dessen Rolle unter physiologischen und pathophysiologischen Bedingungen

    Do things have ethics?

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    This is an open hardware and open software game console developed by hackers in Belgrade. By just looking at the game console itself, you would not see the ethical thinking behind it. This is why, the values of things should be taken into account. Acknowledgements: European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under Grant Agreement No: 732027
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