The Groucho Effect of Uncertain Standards

Consumers are rarely sure of the exact standard that product labels and other certificates of quality represent. We show that any such uncertainty creates a “Groucho effect” in which seeing that a product has a label leads consumers to infer that the standard for the label itself is not very demanding. Label adoption is therefore always less likely to be an equilibrium than without uncertainty over the standard, and if it is an equilibrium it is always less informative than without such uncertainty. The Groucho effect leads to an information externality so better firms are reluctant to adopt labels if worse firms adopt them. Applying the model to eco-labels, we find that industry groups, governments, and NGOs can increase label adoption by publicizing labeling criteria, by encouraging consumers to expect label adoption when there are multiple equilibria, and by setting high standards that are less likely to be devalued by low quality firms.Eco-labels, disclosure, certification, persuasion, standards

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Companies in Kenya and Their Credit Risk Management Practices

The pharmaceutical industry in Kenya consists of manufacturers, distributors and retailers, who all actively support the Ministry of Health and other key players in developing the health sector. Kenya spends about 8% of its GDP on health. Trade credit is created whenever a supplier offers terms that allow the buyer to delay payment. This study aimed at to identifying the credit risk management practices adopted by pharmaceutical manufacturing firms in Kenya. The study found out that the two most important factors considered in establishing a credit policy are the financial stability of the customer and the existing credit policy. Majority of the firms do not have a credit policy manual. The most widely used credit risk management practices are use of debt collectors letters of credit, credit insurance and factoring of debt  in that order. In dealing with difficult to pay customers nearly all firms put the account on hold and stopped future sales till the account was settled, (80%) engaged services of debt collectors, (43%) resorted to selling on cash basis. The 6C’s model of credit appraisal was widely used. Key words: credit risk, credit risk management, pharmaceutical firm

Endangered Culture The changing landscape of Matrilineal land ownership in rural communities in Kasanga settlement in Morogoro, Tanzania

ABSTRACT African culture and tradition on matrilineal land ownership are on the verge of disappearing. Land ownership in rural communities remains an important cultural dimension to secure livelihoods, economic growth, and sustainable development. Gender relations continue to interfere culture and tradition of matrilineal communities. Migration has changed the community and influenced the land ownership transformation from women to men. Given the general statistics in the dominant patrilineal societies’ women are routinely and systematically denied equal rights to access, use, inherit, control and own land. This means that women and their children also miss out on the vast advantages that come with property rights, putting their health, safety, economic security, and political rights in jeopardy. Different studies associate this with the unwritten customary laws applicable to their communities which must be proven in a court as a question of fact whenever the customary law of the matrilineal community is invoked.Goal and Objectives:This research aimed at investigating the experience of matrilineal societies’ land ownership transformation from matrilineal to patrilineal linage. Moreover, uncover the complexity of such transformation and how it affects women who depend wholly on matrilineal culture for land ownership.Methodology:Our study was based at Kasanga settlement in Morogoro, Tanzania. The study was purely qualitative. The research methods used in data collection were interviews, mapping and focus group discussion. A total number of 76 households were involved in the interviews. The findings indicated that the remaining community with matrilineal culture is disappearing.Results:The complex nature of transformed land ownership has ended up creating unequal communities. In these communities, it would be expected that most people who own land were supposed to be women. However, the ongoing land ownership transformation creates an alarm to remaining matrilineal communities. It is indicated that land ownership in Kasanga village entails more than 50% of the land is owned by males. Although 20 years ago, more than 60% of women constituted most of the landowners.  Access to land has changed so much over the past 20 years; migration into Kasanga village contributed to the social mix. Currently, access to land through purchase is almost dominating and make 30.3%, inheritance account for 32.8%, gift 7.9% and allocation by the village councils 2.6% and 26.3% do not own land at all.  60.9% of those people purchased land at Kasanga are males while female constitutes 39.1% only. The lineage has shifted from matrilineal to patrilineal by 7% and 93%, respectively.There is a high level of discrimination in land ownership due to changes in land ownership at Kasanga settlement as the patrilineal is becoming dominant, covering 78%, followed by mixed or joint ownership, which takes 15% and the remaining 7% are matrilineal. The communities who depended on matrilineal linage to access land are robbed of their right to access the essential resource. Only 23.07% of women have access to housing, whilst 56.41% are male.  80% of women who own land and have access to housing are in lousy condition. The migrants' communities into Kasanga village have changed the whole spectrum of matrilineal linage and forced traditional women to become landless. Others inherit a minimal share of land, and some are marginalized, limiting their access to housing. Following these changes, women face several challenges in accessing land, such as being given a small share of land; some are not given land as they are believed to be able to add value to it

Globalisation and Skills for Development in Rwanda and Tanzania

International Development,

Global genetic homogeneity in the deep-sea foraminiferan Epistominella exigua (Rotaliida: Pseudoparrellidae)

Epistominella exigua is one of the most common deep-sea foraminiferal morphospecies and has a world-wide distribution. A recent molecular study revealed high genetic similarity between Arctic, Atlantic and Antarctic populations of this species. Here, we show that the small-subunit (SSU) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences of an E. exigua population from Pacific are almost identical to those reported previously from the other three oceans. This result confirms the genetic homogeneity of E. exigua, which contrasts with the prevalence of highly differentiated populations in planktonic and shallow-water benthic foraminiferans. We discuss special features of diversifications mechanisms in the deep sea that may be responsible for the lack of genetic differentiation and global distribution of some meiofauna species

NCR+ ILC3 maintain larger STAT4 reservoir via T-BET to regulate type 1 features upon IL-23 stimulation in mice

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) producing IL-22 and/or IL-17, designated as ILC3, comprise a heterogeneous subset of cells involved in regulation of gut barrier homeostasis and inflammation. Exogenous environmental cues in conjunction with regulated expression of endogenous factors are key determinants of plasticity of ILC3 towards the type 1 fate. Herein, by using mouse models and transcriptomic approaches, we defined at the molecular level, initial events driving ILC3 expressing natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCR+ ILC3) to acquire type 1 features. We observed that NCR+ ILC3 exhibited high basal expression of the signal-dependent transcription factor STAT4 due to T-BET, leading to predisposed potential for the type 1 response. We found that the prototypical inducer of type 3 response, IL-23, played a predominant role over IL-12 by accessing STAT4 and preferentially inducing its phosphorylation in ILC3 expressing T-BET. The early effector program driven by IL-23 was characterized by the expression of IL-22, followed by a production of IFN-γ, which relies on STAT4, T-BET and required chromatin remodeling of the Ifng locus. Altogether, our findings shed light on a feed-forward mechanism involving STAT4 and T-BET that modulates the outcome of IL-23 signaling in ILC3. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA

The study is patterned to empirically investigate foreign direct investment (FDI) and the economic growth in Nigeria between 1990 and 2021. It is based on the traditional theory of FDI. For the attainment of its objectives Oil related Foreign Direct Investment (OFDI) and Non-oil related Foreign Direct Investment (NFDI) were used as proxies for study’s explanatory variable FDIwhile gross domestic product (GDP) was used to proxy the study’s dependent variable economic growth in Nigeria. Secondary data from the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical bulletin was obtained and employed in the study. In the study stationarity test was indulged in. The ordinary Least Square (OLS) approach was used to carry out the short-run analysis while Johansen co-integration test was employed to carry out the long-run analysis. Also, the Granger causality test was employed in the study so as to ascertain if a causal relationship exists between the study’s variables. Our results reveal the following: Data were stationary at order one (1), positive and insignificant relationship between NFDI and economic growth in Nigeria, negative and insignificant relationship between OFDI and economic growth in Nigeria, positive and significant relationship between FDI and economic growth in Nigeria. The results also reveal the underlisted: In the short-run FDI largely determines economic growth in Nigeria, a long-run relationship between FDI and economic growth in Nigeria, and no causal relationship between FDI and economic growth in Nigeria. Lastly, the study made some recommendations so as to permit economic growth brought about by the inflow and survival of FDI in Nigeria

Asymptomatic bacteriuria among pregnant women attending antenatal care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Northern Tanzania

Background:  Asymptomatic bacteriuria has been demonstrated to have adverse maternal and pregnancy outcomes precisely pyelonephritis, low birth weight, preterm premature rupture of membranes and preterm labour.Objective: This study aimed to determine the prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria and antibiotic sensitivity pattern among women attending antenatal clinic at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Northern Tanzania.Methodology: We conducted analytical cross sectional study involving women attending antenatal clinic at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre between October and December 2016. All women who met the inclusion criteria and gave their informed consent were invited to participate. Interviews using a questionnaire were conducted to collect socio-demographic and obstetric information while urine samples were collected for laboratory processing. Results: The prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) among pregnant women in this study was 8.9%. The organisms isolated from the urine sample according to the frequency of occurrence were Escherichia coli (50%), Streptococcus pyogenes (19%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (15%), group B Streptococcus (8%), group A Streptococcus (4%) and Proteus mirabilis (4%). The rate of antibiotic sensitivity among gram negative bacteria ranged from 100% among Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis to ceftriaxone, while Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis showed no sensitivity at all to ampicillin. Among the gram positive bacteria, erythromycin was shown to have sensitivity to group A streptococcus but no sensitivity to group B streptococcus.Conclusion: The prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria of 8.9% among pregnant women and the wide array of organisms isolated in this population warrant the development of protocols for routine ASB screening and exclusion of ampicillin as an antibiotic of choice in this cohort