A Review of Controlling Motivational Strategies from a Self-Determination Theory Perspective: Implications for Sports Coaches

The aim of this paper is to present a preliminary taxonomy of six controlling strategies, primarily based on the parental and educational literatures, which we believe are employed by coaches in sport contexts. Research in the sport and physical education literature has primarily focused on coaches’ autonomysupportive behaviours. Surprisingly, there has been very little research on the use of controlling strategies. A brief overview of the research which delineates each proposed strategy is presented, as are examples of the potential manifestation of the behaviours associated with each strategy in the context of sports coaching. In line with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2002), we propose that coach behaviours employed to pressure or control athletes have the potential to thwart athletes’ feelings of autonomy, competence,and relatedness, which, in turn, undermine athletes’ self-determined motivation and contribute to the development of controlled motives. When athletes feel pressured to behave in a certain way, a variety of negative consequences are expected to ensue which are to the detriment of the athletes’ well-being. The purpose of this paper is to raise awareness and interest in the darker side of sport participation and to offer suggestions for future research in this area

Broad-scale patterns of body size in squamate reptiles of Europe and North America

Aim To document geographical interspecific patterns of body size of European and North American squamate reptile assemblages and explore the relationship between body size patterns and environmental gradients. Location North America and western Europe. Methods We processed distribution maps for native species of squamate reptiles to document interspecific spatial variation of body size at a grain size of 110 x 110 km. We also examined seven environmental variables linked to four hypotheses possibly influencing body size gradients. We used simple and multiple regression, evaluated using information theory, to identify the set of models best supported by the data. Results Europe is characterized by clear latitudinal trends in body size, whereas geographical variation in body size in North America is complex. There is a consistent association of mean body size with measures of ambient energy in both regions, although lizards increase in size northwards whereas snakes show the opposite pattern. Our best models accounted for almost 60% of the variation in body size of lizards and snakes within Europe, but the proportions of variance explained in North America were less than 20%. Main conclusions Although body size influences the energy balance of thermoregulating ectotherms, inconsistent biogeographical patterns and contrasting associations with energy in lizards and snakes suggest that no single mechanism can explain variation of reptile body size in the northern temperate zone

Inheritance of resistance to common bacterial blight in common bean

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important grain legume crop in Malawi where it is grown by small holder farmers for food as well as for sale. Among the many diseases that limit crop productivity is the common bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv phaseoli (Xap). Effective breeding for resistance to Xap requires understanding of the model of inheritance for resistance. A study to determine the inheritance of resistance to Xap in common bean was carried out in Malawi. Two established bean varieties originating from local landraces in Malawi (Chimbamba and Nasaka), plus one line (RC 15) from the breeding programme at Bunda College of Agriculture, were used as recipient (susceptible) parents; while Vax 6 from CIAT was the donor (resistant) parent. The progenies were advanced to F2 generations in greenhouses. The F2 populations were evaluated for resistance to Xap. The results showed that one recipient parent, Chimbamba, which is supposedly homogeneous, behaved like a segregating population and, therefore, modified the phenotypic ratios of the progenies. A Chi-square test using data generated from populations resulting from the three recipient parents showed that the inheritance of resistance to Xap was controlled by two major genes with possible minor genes involvement. The same was true when a Chi-square test was used to analyse the pooled data across populations generated from the three recipient parents (Chimbamba, Nasaka and RC 15), suggesting that inheritance of resistance to Xap was controlled by two major gene

SAW arrays using dendrimers and pattern recognition to detect volatile organics

chemical sensor arrays eliminate the need to develop a high-selectivity material for every analyte. The application of pattern recognition to the simultaneous responses of different microsensors enables the identification and quantification of multiple analytes with a small array. Maximum materials diversity is the surest means to create an effective array for many analytes, but using a single material family simplifies coating development. Here the authors report the successful combination of an array of six dendrimer films with mass-sensitive SAW (surface acoustic wave) sensors to correctly identify 18 organic analytes over wide concentration ranges, with 99.5% accuracy. The set of materials for the array is selected and the results evaluated using Sandia`s Visual-Empirical Region of Influence (VERI) pattern recognition (PR) technique. The authors evaluated eight dendrimer films and one self-assembled monolayer (SAM) as potential SAW array coatings. The 18 organic analytes they examined were: cyclohexane, n-hexane, i-octane, kerosene, benzene, toluene, chlorobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, methanol, n-propanol, pinacolyl alcohol, acetone, methyl isobutyl ketone, dimethylmethylphosphate, diisopropylmethylphosphonate, tributylphosphate, and water

Beyond stages of change: multi-determinant continuum models of action readiness and menu-based interventions

The merits of modelling action readiness as a series of stages is discussed, focusing on the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) which postulates a motivational stage (for non-intenders) and a volitional stage (for intenders). The HAPA helpfully clarifies that the relationship between self-efficacy and action may be different for inexperienced intenders and experienced actors. This model also usefully distinguishes between different types of planning undertaken by intenders and it is suggested that further specification of planning tasks could explain why some intenders act while others do not. Despite the advantages of the HAPA, it is argued that the distinction between intenders and non-intenders is fuzzy and unstable and that demarcation of the stage boundary is arbitrary. A multi-determinant, multi-goal continuum approach is recommended. Such modelling recognises graded discontinuities throughout the development of action readiness from attitude formation to behaviour change maintenance. It is argued that menu-based interventions designed to deliver different messages and materials to people with different action-readiness deficits may be more cost effective than stage-tailored interventions. © 2007 International Association for Applied Psychology