The Controlling Interpersonal Style in a Coaching Context: Development and Initial Validation of a Psychometric Scale

This article outlines the development and initial validation of the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS), a multidimensional self-report measure designed to assess sports coaches’ controlling interpersonal style from the perspective of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Study 1 generated a pool of items, based on past literature and feedback from coaches, athletes, and academic experts. The factorial structure of the questionnaire was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses across Studies 2 and 3. The final CCBS model in Study 3 comprised 4 factors (controlling use of rewards,conditional regard,intimidation, and excessive personal control) and was cross-validated using a third independent sample in Study 4. The scale demonstrated good content and factorial validity, as well as internal consistency and invariance across gender and sport type. Suggestions for its use in research pertaining to the darker side of coaching and sport participation are discussed

The role of interpersonal control and need thwarting in the prediction of ill-being in sport: a self-determination theory approach

Utilizing self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2002) as a framework, the current thesis aimed to explore the social conditions that satisfy versus thwart psychological needs and, in turn, impact upon psychological and physiological functioning and well/ill-being in the sport context. Although research guided by SDT has explored the conditions (i.e., autonomy support) and psychological processes (i.e., need satisfaction) that foster healthy development and effective functioning in athletes, very little research has considered the potential role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting in the development of athlete ill-being. To address these limitations, this thesis begins by outlining the development and initial validation of two new questionnaire measures: the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (Chapter 2) and the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (Chapter 3). The new questionnaire measures were subsequently utilized in three studies, reported in Chapter 4. Across all three samples, need satisfaction was better predicted by autonomy-supportive behaviors, and need thwarting was better predicted by coach control. In turn, athletes’ perceptions of need satisfaction predicted positive outcomes (i.e., vitality and positive affect) whereas need thwarting consistently better predicted maladaptive outcomes (i.e., disordered eating, burnout, depression, negative affect, physical symptoms, and perturbed physiological functioning). Such novel findings indicate that controlling interpersonal behaviors and psychological need thwarting represent important aspects of the SDT framework which must be further researched (both in sport and in other life domains) if the development of diminished functioning and ill-being is to be properly understood

Psychological Need Thwarting in the Sport Context: Assessing the Darker Side of Athletic Experience

Research in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002) has shown that satisfac­tion of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs in sport contexts is associated with enhanced engagement, performance, and well-being. This article outlines the initial development of a multidimensional measure designed to assess psychologi­cal need thwarting, an under-studied area of conceptual and practical importance. Study 1 generated a pool of items designed to tap the negative experiential state that occurs when athletes perceive their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness to be actively undermined. Study 2 tested the factorial structure of the questionnaire using confirmatory factor analysis. The supported model comprised 3 factors, which represented the hypothesized interrelated dimensions of need thwarting. The model was refined and cross-validated using an independent sample in Study 3. Overall, the psychological need thwarting scale (PNTS) demonstrated good content, factorial, and predictive validity, as well as internal consistency and invariance across gender, sport type, competitive level, and competitive experi­ence. The conceptualization of psychological need thwarting is discussed, and suggestions are made regarding the use of the PNTS in research pertaining to the darker side of sport participation

Can Self-Esteem Protect Against the Deleterious Consequences of Self-Objectification for Mood and Body Satisfaction in Physically Active Female University Students?

Using objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), this study tested the interaction between self-objectification, appearance evaluation, and self-esteem in predicting body satisfaction and mood states. Participants (N = 93) were physically active female university students. State self-objectification was manipulated by participants wearing tight revealing exercise attire (experimental condition) or baggy exercise clothes (control condition). Significant interactions emerged predicting depression, anger, fatness, and satisfaction with body shape and size. For participants in the self-objectification condition who had low (as opposed to high) appearance evaluation, low self-esteem was associated with high depression, anger, and fatness and low satisfaction with body shape and size. In contrast, for participants with high self-esteem, these mood and body satisfaction states were more favorable irrespective of their levels of appearance evaluation. For female exercisers, self-esteem-enhancing strategies may protect against some of the negative outcomes of self-objectification

Self-determination theory and diminished functioning: the role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting

Drawing from self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002), three studies explored the social-environmental conditions that satisfy versus thwart psychological needs and, in turn, impact psychological functioning and well/ill-being. In cross-sectional Studies 1 and 2, structural equation modeling analyses supported latent factor models in which need satisfaction was predicted by athletes’ perceptions of autonomy support and need thwarting was better predicted by perceived coach control. Athletes’ perceptions of need satisfaction predicted positive outcomes associated with sport participation (vitality and positive affect) whereas perceptions of need thwarting more consistently predicted maladaptive outcomes (disordered eating, burnout, depression, negative affect, and physical symptoms). In addition, athletes’ perceptions of psychological need thwarting were significantly associated with perturbed physiological arousal (elevated levels of secretory immunoglobulin A) prior to training. The final study involved the completion of a diary and supported the relations observed in the cross-sectional studies at a daily level. These findings have important implications for the operationalization and measurement of interpersonal styles and psychological needs

Predicting the brighter and darker sides of interpersonal relationships: Does psychological need thwarting matter?

Abstract Recent studies have indicated that assessments of need thwarting better predict diminished functioning and ill-being compared to low need satisfaction, which better predict optimal functioning and well-being. In this study we aimed to further explore the important theoretical distinction between psychological need thwarting and need satisfaction in the domain of interpersonal relationships. We examined whether the distinction between need satisfaction and thwarting is due to method effects resulting from positive and negative item wording, however, multitrait multi-method analyses indicated no substantial method effects. Further, we showed that a lack of need satisfaction (i.e., need dissatisfaction) is not equivalent to experiences of need thwarting. In fact, need thwarting better predicted compromised relational functioning compared to need dissatisfaction. Need satisfaction was a stronger predictor of interpersonal competence compared to need thwarting and need dissatisfaction. The current findings underline the importance of assessing need thwarting when examining compromised functioning in interpersonal relationships

Using a socio-ecological framework to understand how 8–12-year-olds build and show digital resilience: A multiperspective and multimethod qualitative study

Educationalists’, researchers’, and policy makers’ work on children’s digital resilience has marginalised the role of the broader context within which digital resilience is constituted, experienced and derived. We aimed to address this lacuna by exploring how pre-teen’s digital resilience operates as a dynamic socio-ecological process. Addressing this aim, we employed participatory methods and thematically analysed eight focus groups with children aged 8–12 years (n = 59) and 20 telephone interviews with parents/carers and teachers of 8–12-year-olds and internet safety experts to examine this issue. We used purposive sampling and collected data over three months (January-March 2020). Our analysis constructed a matrix of main themes, constituent, and cross-cutting sub-themes. By placing this within a socio-ecological framework, we illustrate how pre-teens’ digital resilience operates within and across differing four levels (individual, home, community and societal) and four domains (learning, recognising, managing, and recovery). The paper advances the literature by illustrating how children can be supported to build and show digital resilience within and across different levels and domains. It is argued that digital resilience should be re-conceptualised as a collective endeavour involving children at an individual level, parents/carers within home environments, youth workers, civil society, teachers, and schools at a community level, along with governments, policymakers, and the education system and internet corporations at a societal level. We conclude by providing practice and research recommendations guiding those supporting children to facilitate opportunities to thrive online