The Value of the Past: Minoan and Minoanizing Larnakes at the Knossos North Cemetery

The main focus of this thesis is the collection of at least seventeen larnakes or clay coffins found at the Knossos North Cemetery site on Crete. The site was uncovered as a result of one period of salvage excavations in 1978 that revealed an expansive necropolis of material dating from all periods between the Subminoan and Late Orientalising periods or approximately 1100BC to 600BC. The presence of larnakes was of particular interest as they have historically been considered a prototypical Minoan shape restricted to the Bronze Age on Crete. Sixteen of the larnakes proved to be examples of Early Iron Age people reusing and recontextualising Bronze Age larnakes at least two hundred years after their manufacture while the other is the only known example of a Geometric style copy of a larnax shape. This thesis, by a comparison of the intended contexts for the larnakes in Late Bronze Age burials, with their burial contexts at the Knossos North Cemetery shows that the use of the larnakes differed greatly between the two and therefore it would seem likely that their meaning did as well. On closer inspection larnakes were most popular on Crete between 1500-1200BC when the evidence suggests that Crete was undergoing a period of political and social turmoil, possibly as the result of an influx of outsiders. The iconography on larnakes suggests a mixture of both new and old techniques and images on the same vessels to signify links to both tradition and innovation all at once. The KNC larnakes, along with a small number of other Minoan finds and influences at the site, suggest the people of later generations were once again using the larnakes to suggest strong links to the local past alongside more contemporary burial practices. In both cases, larnakes were used to strengthen and legitimate status, for the small, possibly family, groups represented in the tombs

Archaeobotanical applications of microCT imaging

This thesis explores the ways in which the three-dimensional and non-destructive imaging technique of microCT can be applied to archaeobotanical materials to extract additional information previously inaccessible using traditional two-dimensional techniques. Across a series of eight publications, two microCT imaging protocols focusing on the imaging and analysis of two distinct types of archaeobotanical remains are presented along with archaeological case studies to which they have been successfully applied. Both protocols seek to utilise the relatively new imaging technique of microCT in order to explore the histories of some of the world's most important, yet in some cases understudied food crops including rice (Oryza sativa) in Island Southeast Asia, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) in Africa, and taro (Colocasia esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and yams (Dioscoreaceae) in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The first protocol outlines how organic cereal tempers can be virtually extracted from inside pottery sherds through the use of microCT scanning and 3D digital segmentation techniques. These extracted digital remains can then be taxonomically identified and their domesticated status assessed using the morphological information only accessible with the penetrative X-rays of microCT. This protocol has been successfully applied to extract new rice and sorghum assemblages from previously excavated pottery sherds and their analysis has expanded our knowledge of the dispersal and early cultivation histories of these staple food crops. The second protocol uses microCT to build the first virtual reference collection of a greatly understudied type of archaeobotanical evidence, archaeological parenchyma. This protocol was developed by imaging samples of important root crops in the Southeast Asia and Pacific region from Jon Hather's parenchyma reference collection and applying his taxonomic identification method developed in the 1980s and 90s. Here his method is updated and adapted to include the added three-dimensional contextual information provided by microCT scanning as well as the greater range of anatomical variation captured both within and between species. The microCT datasets of these reference samples will form part of the first publicly accessible, online and virtual, archaeological parenchyma reference collection, which will hopefully encourage wider adoption and application of the technique. Both archaeobotanical microCT protocols presented here demonstrate the enormous potential of the technique to expand on our current sources of archaeobotanical evidence. The digital nature of the datasets presents the possibility of increasing analytical efficiency in the future with the development of automated archaeobotanical analyses

A microCT protocol for the visualisation and identification of domesticated plant remains within pottery sherds

In tropical, arid and semi-arid environments, archaeobotanical preservation is often relatively poor and, his-torically, archaeobotanical extraction techniques have been inconsistently applied. As a result, the surface im-pressions of plants in organic-tempered pottery sherds have been relied upon to explore questions of past human-plant relationships, including domestication. Traditional imaging techniques used to study the morphology of plant impressions have significant limitations including being restricted to imaging visible external surfaces and the difficulty of analysing three-dimensional morphologies in two dimensional images. These limitations can now be overcome through microCT scanning, a major methodological advance, which is relatively non-de-structive and enables high resolution and in situ, three-dimensional visualisation of internal organic inclusions and impressions. This paper outlines the protocol for image capture, visualisation and qualitative analysis of domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) spikelet bases and husks, among other organic and inorganic materials, pre-served in pottery.This research was funded by the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT150100420) to Denham

Is there a centre of early agriculture and plant domestication in southern China?

The archaeobotanical evidence for a putative third centre of early agriculture and plant domestication in southern subtropical China, based primarily on use-wear and residue analyses of artefacts from the sites of Zengpiyan, Niulandong and Xincun, is here reviewed. The available data are not diagnostic of early cultivation or plant domestication based on vegetative propagation in this region. The uncertainties raised by this review are not unique to southern China, and reveal a bias against the identification of early cultivation of vegetatively propagated plants in other regions of the world. The authors suggest that by embracing new integrated analytical approaches, including underused methods such as the study of parenchymatous tissue, the investigation of early domestication and cultivation in this region can make significant advances.The research was funded by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT150100420) to T.D

Sherds as archaeobotanical assemblages: Gua Sireh reconsidered

The earliest claim for domesticated rice in Island Southeast Asia (4960–3565 cal BP) derives from a single grain embedded in a ceramic sherd from Gua Sireh Cave, Borneo. In a first assessment of spikelet-base assemblages within pottery sherds using quantitative microCT analysis, the authors found no additional rice remains within this sherd to support the early date of rice farming; analysis of a more recent Gua Sireh sherd (1990–830 cal BP), however, indicates that 70 per cent of spikelet bases are from domesticated rice. This technique offers a high degree of contextual and temporal resolution for approaching organic-tempered ceramics as well-preserved archaeobotanical assemblages.This research is supported by the Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship and the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT150100420)

The use of MicroCT scanning on pottery sherds to investigate the domestication of sorghum in Eastern Sudan and pearl millet in Northern Mali

International audienc

The use of MicroCT scanning on pottery sherds to investigate the domestication of sorghum in Eastern Sudan and pearl millet in Northern Mali

International audienc

The use of MicroCT scanning on pottery sherds to investigate the domestication of sorghum in Eastern Sudan and pearl millet in Northern Mali

International audienc

La transformation du mil de sauvage en mil domestique (Pennisetum glaucum) révélée par le dégraissant des déramiques de trois sites archéologiques du nord Mali

International audienceImprints of domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) spikelets, observed as temper in ceramics dating to the third millennium BC, provide the earliest evidence for the cultivation and domestication process of this crop in northern Mali. Additional sherds from the same region dating to the fifth and fourth millennium BC were examined and found to have pearl millet chaff with wild morphologies. In addition to studying sherds by stereo microscopy and subjecting surface casts to scanning electron microscopy (SEM), we also deployed X-ray micro-computed tomography (microCT) on eleven sherds. This significantly augmented the total data set of archaeological pearl millet chaff remains from which to document the use of the wild pearl millet as ceramic temper and the evolution of its morphology over time. Grain sizes were also estimated from spikelets preserved in the ceramics. Altogether, we are now able to chart the evolution of domesticated pearl millet in western Africa using three characteristics: the evolution of non shattering stalked involucres ; the appearance of multiple spikelet involucres, usually paired spikelets; and the increase in grain size. By the fourth millennium BC, average grain breadth had increased by 28%, although spikelet features otherwise resemble the wild type. In the third millennium BC, the average width of seeds is 38% greater than that of wild seeds, while other qualitative features of domestication are indicated by the presence of paired spikelets and the appearance of non dehiscent, stalked involucres. Non shattering spikelets had probably become fixed by around 2000 BC, while increases in average grain size continued into the second millennium BC. These data now provide a robust sequence for the morphological evolution of domesticated pearl millet, the first indigenous crop domesticated in western Africa.Des empreintes d’épillets de mil domestiqué (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) observées dans des céramiques datées du 3e millénaire av. J.-C. provenant du nord du Mali constituent les plus anciens témoins de la mise en culture et de la domestication de cette céréale. Des tessons supplémentaires issus de la même région se rapportant aux 5e et 4e millénaires av. J.-C. ont été examinés et ont révélé des empreintes de balle de mil de morphologies sauvages. En plus de l’observation de leurs surfaces par stéréo-microscopie, et de l’observation des moulages d’empreintes au microscope à balayage, onze d’entre eux ont fait l’objet de microtomographies aux rayons X (microCT). Ces examens enrichissent considérablement l’ensemble des données archéologiques concernant l’utilisation du mil sauvage comme dégraissant végétal et son évolution morphologique à travers le temps. La taille des grains a aussi été estimée à partir des épillets conservés dans la céramique. En tenant compte des données enregistrées lors d’études antérieures, nous pouvons désormais retracer l’évolution du mil domestiqué en Afrique de l’Ouest à travers trois caractéristiques : l’évolution des involucres pédonculés à égrenage non-spontané; l’apparition d’involucres multiples par épillets, des épillets appariés le plus souvent; l’augmentation de la taille des grains au vu de leur largeur. Déjà au 4e millénaire avant J.-C., la largeur moyenne des grains a augmenté de 28% bien que les caractéristiques de l'épillet ressemblent au type sauvage. Au 3e millénaire avant J.-C., elle est 38% supérieure à celle du morphotype sauvage, tandis que des caractéristiques qualitatives de la domestication sont avérées par la présence d’épillets appariés et par celle d’involucres pédonculés à égrenage nonspontané. La non-déhiscence des épillets est un caractère de domesticité qui s’est probablement fixé vers 2000 avant J.-C. L’augmentation de la taille moyenne des grains s’est poursuivie tout au long du 2e millénaire av. J.-C. Ces données fournissent désormais une séquence robuste concernant l’évolution morphologique du mil, la première céréale indigène domestiquée en Afrique de l’Ouest

Visualising scales of process: Multi-scalar geoarchaeological investigations of microstratigraphy and diagenesis at hominin bearing sites in South African karst

Multi-scalar geoarchaeological investigations were conducted on several samples of sediment (dolomite cave sediments, ferricrete ridge, speleothem, tufa and tufa cave sediments) from four early hominin fossil-bearing sites (Taung Type Site, Haasgat, Drimolen Main Quarry, Elandsfontein) in different South African karst environments. The study was designed to test the value of geoarchaeological techniques for identifying and characterising environments of deposition and diagenetic processes involved in site formation within different mediums and different karst environments. The traditional petrographic method is weighed against two relatively new methodological contributions to site formation and diagenesis: Computed Tomography (CT) and automated Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals using Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (QEM-EDS), employing QEMSCAN® technology. An integrated micro-sampling approach is outlined for successful cross-correlation between techniques. The study demonstrates that different analyses vary in their ability to visualise different types of process – primary and secondary. Thin section petrography remains the ‘gold standard’ for analyses conducted at the micro-scale, while QEM-EDS and CT offer exciting potential to perform meso-scale analyses and are best utilised as complementary rather than alternative techniques to petrograph