Analyse neurochimique des dépolarisations corticales envahissantes après un traumatisme crânien sévère : existe-il un continuum entre une réponse physiologique et une crise métabolique?

“Traumatic brain injury” (TBI) encompasses a heterogeneous group of physio-pathological phenomenon. Prognosis, clinical course evaluation and treatment of brain trauma remain challenging. Brain damage results from both the initial physical insult (primary injury), and also continues to occur in the ensuing hours to days because of secondary brain aggressions. Among secondary injuries following TBI, Cortical Spreading Depolarizations (CSD) have emerged since the mid-90s. CSD are waves of depolarization propagating along the cortex at a speed of 1-5 mm/min that induced a massive energetic demand to repolarize the cells. CSD are participating to prognosis because their occurrence and duration are related to outcome in different acute brain injuries (TBI, sub-arachnoid hemorrhage and ischemic stroke). During my thesis, our main goal was to determine whether the CSD reinforced neuronal death following brain trauma that can explain the poor prognosis. In a first study we delineated brain regions where neuronal death occurs following lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) in order to record CSDs in this area. Then, as we wanted to assess the energetic balance of this tissue during CSD using biosensors, we had primarily to check for the biosensor reliability to oxygen (O2) and temperature (To). As oxygen and temperature were different from bench (in vitro) to bedside (in vivo) monitoring, we developed algorithms to compute offline the in vivo values obtained for glucose, lactate or glutamate brain concentrations respecting the local O2 concentrations and To measured in the cortex. Finally, using the biosensors, we described the dynamic real time metabolic changes occurring after CSDs in 3 conditions: A healthy cortex, an injured cortex after LFPI, and when CSD occurred in cluster after LFPI. Although the normal brain displayed a hyper-glycolytic state following CSD (transient low glucose concentrations + prolonged elevated lactate concentrations), TBI tissue exhibited a different pattern that could be metabolic crisis (very low glucose concentrations + normal to low lactateconcentrations)Les traumatismes crâniens (TC) représentent la première cause de décès ou de handicap avant l'âge de 45 ans, avec une incidence en Europe de 235/100 000 habitants. Chez les patients survivant à un TC, les séquelles sont fréquentes allant de l'état végétatif chronique au syndrome post-concussionnel compliquant principalement la réinsertion socio professionnelle et familiale des victimes. Cependant la nature des lésions cérébrales provoquées par un TC est encore mal connue et les thérapies susceptibles d'empêcher la progression des lésions neurologiques sont très limitées. Un TC provoque d'abord des lésions directement dues à l'impact (lésions primaires). D'autres mécanismes secondaires vont avoir lieu dès les premières minutes suivant le TC et peuvent évoluer sur plusieurs jours. Elles sont susceptibles d'être atténuées par une thérapeutique appropriée et sont donc l'objet de la plupart des efforts de recherche actuels. Néanmoins, notre connaissance de ces phénomènes d'agression primaires et secondaires, est incomplète et ne permet pas d'expliquer correctement l'évolution des TC. Les dépolarisations corticales envahissantes (DCE) ou cortical spreading depolarizations””sont un des évènements délétères contribuant aux lésions secondaires consécutives au TC. Les DCE sont des vagues de dépolarisation massive associées à un mauvais pronostic. Elles sont caractérisées par une dépression de l'activité electrocorticographique et une dépolarisation des neurones corticaux et des astrocytes qui se propagent sur le cortex. Les DCE s'accompagnent d'une augmentation des besoins métaboliques visant à restituer au tissu son état d'homéostasie neurochimique et de polarisation cellulaire. Les conséquences des DCE sur le métabolisme cérébral sont encore mal connues aussi bien sur un tissu sain qu'après agression cérébrale. Il existe des arguments pour penser que l'incidence, le nombre et la durée des DCE sont associés à un moins bon pronostic chez l'homme après agression cérébrale. Cependant, les mécanismes par lesquels ces DCE auraient une toxicité directe reposent encore sur des arguments le plus souvent indirects et sont mal compris. L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse a été de caractériser les conséquences neurochimiques et micro-vasculaires des DCE afin de mieux comprendre leur physiopathologie dans un cortex sain ou agressé par un TC sévèr

What Should a Clinician Do When Spreading Depolarizations are Observed in a Patient?

Abstract: The International Conference on Spreading Depolarizations (iCSD) held in Boca Raton, Florida, in the September of 2018 devoted a section to address the question, “What should a clinician do when spreading depolarizations are observed in a patient?” Discussants represented a wide range of expertise, including neurologists, neurointensivists, neuroradiologists, neurosurgeons, and pre-clinical neuroscientists, to provide both clinical and basic pathophysiology perspectives. A draft summary of viewpoints offered was then written by a multidisciplinary writing group of iCSD members, based on a transcript of the session. Feedback of all discussants was formally collated, reviewed, and incorporated into the final document which was subsequently approved by all authors

Neuro-chemical analysis of cortical spreading depolarizations after severe traumatic brain injury : a continuum from a physiologic response to a metabolic crisis?

Les traumatismes crâniens (TC) représentent la première cause de décès ou de handicap avant l'âge de 45 ans, avec une incidence en Europe de 235/100 000 habitants. Chez les patients survivant à un TC, les séquelles sont fréquentes allant de l'état végétatif chronique au syndrome post-concussionnel compliquant principalement la réinsertion socio professionnelle et familiale des victimes. Cependant la nature des lésions cérébrales provoquées par un TC est encore mal connue et les thérapies susceptibles d'empêcher la progression des lésions neurologiques sont très limitées. Un TC provoque d'abord des lésions directement dues à l'impact (lésions primaires). D'autres mécanismes secondaires vont avoir lieu dès les premières minutes suivant le TC et peuvent évoluer sur plusieurs jours. Elles sont susceptibles d'être atténuées par une thérapeutique appropriée et sont donc l'objet de la plupart des efforts de recherche actuels. Néanmoins, notre connaissance de ces phénomènes d'agression primaires et secondaires, est incomplète et ne permet pas d'expliquer correctement l'évolution des TC. Les dépolarisations corticales envahissantes (DCE) ou cortical spreading depolarizations””sont un des évènements délétères contribuant aux lésions secondaires consécutives au TC. Les DCE sont des vagues de dépolarisation massive associées à un mauvais pronostic. Elles sont caractérisées par une dépression de l'activité electrocorticographique et une dépolarisation des neurones corticaux et des astrocytes qui se propagent sur le cortex. Les DCE s'accompagnent d'une augmentation des besoins métaboliques visant à restituer au tissu son état d'homéostasie neurochimique et de polarisation cellulaire. Les conséquences des DCE sur le métabolisme cérébral sont encore mal connues aussi bien sur un tissu sain qu'après agression cérébrale. Il existe des arguments pour penser que l'incidence, le nombre et la durée des DCE sont associés à un moins bon pronostic chez l'homme après agression cérébrale. Cependant, les mécanismes par lesquels ces DCE auraient une toxicité directe reposent encore sur des arguments le plus souvent indirects et sont mal compris. L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse a été de caractériser les conséquences neurochimiques et micro-vasculaires des DCE afin de mieux comprendre leur physiopathologie dans un cortex sain ou agressé par un TC sévère“Traumatic brain injury” (TBI) encompasses a heterogeneous group of physio-pathological phenomenon. Prognosis, clinical course evaluation and treatment of brain trauma remain challenging. Brain damage results from both the initial physical insult (primary injury), and also continues to occur in the ensuing hours to days because of secondary brain aggressions. Among secondary injuries following TBI, Cortical Spreading Depolarizations (CSD) have emerged since the mid-90s. CSD are waves of depolarization propagating along the cortex at a speed of 1-5 mm/min that induced a massive energetic demand to repolarize the cells. CSD are participating to prognosis because their occurrence and duration are related to outcome in different acute brain injuries (TBI, sub-arachnoid hemorrhage and ischemic stroke). During my thesis, our main goal was to determine whether the CSD reinforced neuronal death following brain trauma that can explain the poor prognosis. In a first study we delineated brain regions where neuronal death occurs following lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) in order to record CSDs in this area. Then, as we wanted to assess the energetic balance of this tissue during CSD using biosensors, we had primarily to check for the biosensor reliability to oxygen (O2) and temperature (To). As oxygen and temperature were different from bench (in vitro) to bedside (in vivo) monitoring, we developed algorithms to compute offline the in vivo values obtained for glucose, lactate or glutamate brain concentrations respecting the local O2 concentrations and To measured in the cortex. Finally, using the biosensors, we described the dynamic real time metabolic changes occurring after CSDs in 3 conditions: A healthy cortex, an injured cortex after LFPI, and when CSD occurred in cluster after LFPI. Although the normal brain displayed a hyper-glycolytic state following CSD (transient low glucose concentrations + prolonged elevated lactate concentrations), TBI tissue exhibited a different pattern that could be metabolic crisis (very low glucose concentrations + normal to low lactateconcentrations

Animal welfare assessment after severe traumatic brain injury in rats

International audienceSevere traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a multifactorial injury process involving respiratory, cardiovascular and immune functions in addition to the brain. Thus, live animal models are needed to study the molecular, cellular and systemic mechanisms of TBI. The ethical use of laboratory animals requires that the benefits of approaches be carefully weighed against potential harm to animals. Welfare assessments adapted to severe TBI research are lacking. Here, we introduce a scoresheet to describe and monitor potential distress in animals, which includes general welfare (body weight, general appearance and spontaneous behaviour) and TBI-specific indices (respiratory function, pain, locomotor impairment, wound healing). Implementation of this scoresheet in Sprague–Dawley rats subjected to severe lateral fluid percussion TBI revealed a period of suffering limited to four days, followed by a recovery to normal welfare scores within 10–15 days, with females showing a worse impact than males. The scores indicate that animal suffering in this model is transitory compared with TBI consequences in humans. The scoresheet allows for the implementation of refinement measures including (1) analgesia during the initial period following TBI and (2) humane endpoints set (30% weight loss, score ≥90 and/or respiratory problems). This animal scoresheet tailored to TBI research provides a basis for further refinement of animal research paradigms aimed at understanding or treating the sequelae of severe TBI

Minimally invasive microelectrode biosensors reveal different neurochemical signature of spreading depolarization in rat cortex.

International audienceMonitoring the chemical composition of the brain interstitial fluid is an important challenge for both pre-clinical and clinical research on brain injury. Microelectrode biosensors are a promising technique with a temporal resolution in the order of seconds. Here, ultra-microelectrodes based on platinized carbon fibers were fabricated to obtain biosensors with less than 15 µm external diameter. Platinization was achieved by sputtering a 10 nm Cr adhesion layer followed by 100 nm of platinum. Platinized carbon fibers were then encased in a glass micropipette and covered with electropolymerized poly-phenylenediamine for selectivity, and covalently immobilized oxidase enzymes (glucose oxidase, lactate oxidase, D-amino acid oxidase or glutamate oxidase). After implantation in the rat parietal cortex, such biosensors detected a smaller basal lactate concentration and a slower diffusion of glucose and D-serine through the blood brain barrier compared to more conventional biosensors with 100 µm external diameter. Interestingly, spreading depolarization (SD) produced a smaller increase in lactate, a larger decrease in glucose, and a larger increase in D-serine at platinized carbon fibers microelectrode biosensors compared to larger sensors. Therefore, the neurochemical signature of SDs was significantly different when estimated with these new minimally invasive biosensors. Such small devices avoid major mechanical injury to blood vessels, preserve the blood brain barrier at the site of implantation, and therefore, provide more accurate measurements from the brain interstitial fluid. Developing smaller, less invasive probes for brain monitoring is therefore an important challenge in order to obtain meaningful information about the cellular mechanisms at work during brain injury

Altered hypermetabolic response to cortical spreading depolarizations after traumatic brain injury in rats

International audienceSpreading depolarizations are waves of near-complete breakdown of neuronal transmembrane ion gradients, free energy starving, and mass depolarization. Spreading depolarizations in electrically inactive tissue are associated with poor outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury. Here, we studied changes in regional cerebral blood flow and brain oxygen (PbtO 2 ), glucose ([Glc]b), and lactate ([Lac]b) concentrations in rats, using minimally invasive real-time sensors. Rats underwent either spreading depolarizations chemically triggered by KCl in naïve cortex in absence of traumatic brain injury or spontaneous spreading depolarizations in the traumatic penumbra after traumatic brain injury, or a cluster of spreading depolarizations triggered chemically by KCl in a remote window from which spreading depolarizations invaded penumbral tissue. Spreading depolarizations in noninjured cortex induced a hypermetabolic response characterized by a decline in [Glc]b and monophasic increases in regional cerebral blood flow, PbtO 2 , and [Lac]b, indicating transient hyperglycolysis. Following traumatic brain injury, spontaneous spreading depolarizations occurred, causing further decline in [Glc]b and reducing the increase in regional cerebral blood flow and biphasic responses of PbtO 2 and [Lac]b, followed by prolonged decline. Recovery of PbtO 2 and [Lac]b was significantly delayed in traumatized animals. Prespreading depolarization [Glc]b levels determined the metabolic response to clusters. The results suggest a compromised hypermetabolic response to spreading depolarizations and slower return to physiological conditions following traumatic brain injury-induced spreading depolarizations

DAMPs and RAGE Pathophysiology at the Acute Phase of Brain Injury: An Overview

Early or primary injury due to brain aggression, such as mechanical trauma, hemorrhage or is-chemia, triggers the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the extracellular space. Some DAMPs, such as S100B, participate in the regulation of cell growth and survival but may also trigger cellular damage as their concentration increases in the extracellular space. When DAMPs bind to pattern-recognition receptors, such as the receptor of advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), they lead to non-infectious inflammation that will contribute to necrotic cell clearance but may also worsen brain injury. In this narrative review, we describe the role and ki-netics of DAMPs and RAGE at the acute phase of brain injury. We searched the MEDLINE database for “DAMPs” or “RAGE” or “S100B” and “traumatic brain injury” or “subarachnoid hemorrhage” or “stroke”. We selected original articles reporting data on acute brain injury pathophysiology, from which we describe DAMPs release and clearance upon acute brain injury, and the implication of RAGE in the development of brain injury. We will also discuss the clinical strategies that emerge from this overview in terms of biomarkers and therapeutic perspective

DAMPs and RAGE Pathophysiology at the Acute Phase of Brain Injury: An Overview

Early or primary injury due to brain aggression, such as mechanical trauma, hemorrhage or is-chemia, triggers the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the extracellular space. Some DAMPs, such as S100B, participate in the regulation of cell growth and survival but may also trigger cellular damage as their concentration increases in the extracellular space. When DAMPs bind to pattern-recognition receptors, such as the receptor of advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), they lead to non-infectious inflammation that will contribute to necrotic cell clearance but may also worsen brain injury. In this narrative review, we describe the role and ki-netics of DAMPs and RAGE at the acute phase of brain injury. We searched the MEDLINE database for “DAMPs” or “RAGE” or “S100B” and “traumatic brain injury” or “subarachnoid hemorrhage” or “stroke”. We selected original articles reporting data on acute brain injury pathophysiology, from which we describe DAMPs release and clearance upon acute brain injury, and the implication of RAGE in the development of brain injury. We will also discuss the clinical strategies that emerge from this overview in terms of biomarkers and therapeutic perspective