Small Polarons in Transition Metal Oxides

The formation of polarons is a pervasive phenomenon in transition metal oxide compounds, with a strong impact on the physical properties and functionalities of the hosting materials. In its original formulation the polaron problem considers a single charge carrier in a polar crystal interacting with its surrounding lattice. Depending on the spatial extension of the polaron quasiparticle, originating from the coupling between the excess charge and the phonon field, one speaks of small or large polarons. This chapter discusses the modeling of small polarons in real materials, with a particular focus on the archetypal polaron material TiO2. After an introductory part, surveying the fundamental theoretical and experimental aspects of the physics of polarons, the chapter examines how to model small polarons using first principles schemes in order to predict, understand and interpret a variety of polaron properties in bulk phases and surfaces. Following the spirit of this handbook, different types of computational procedures and prescriptions are presented with specific instructions on the setup required to model polaron effects.Comment: 36 pages, 12 figure

Two-Dimensional, Pyrazine-Based Nonlinear Optical Chromophores with Ruthenium(II) Ammine Electron Donors

The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) is a marine exotic species that has successfully been introduced into the Oosterschelde estuary in the Netherlands in the 1960’s. It is still spreading, and can now be considered a part of the local ecosystem. Along with C. gigas other exotic species have been introduce

An electrochemical, microtopographical and ambient pressure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopic investigation of Si/TiO2/Ni/electrolyte interfaces

The electrical and spectroscopic properties of the TiO2/Ni protection layer system, which enables stabilization of otherwise corroding photoanodes, have been investigated in contact with electrolyte solutions by scanning-probe microscopy, electrochemistry and in-situ ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AP-XPS). Specifically, the energy-band relations of the p+-Si/ALD-TiO2/Ni interface have been determined for a selected range of Ni thicknesses. AP-XPS measurements using tender X-rays were performed in a three-electrode electrochemical arrangement under potentiostatic controlto obtain information from the semiconductor near-surface region, the electrochemical double layer (ECDL) and the electrolyte beyond the ECDL. The degree of conductivity depended on the chemical state of the Ni on the TiO2 surface. At low loadings of Ni, the Ni was present primarily as an oxide layer and the samples were not conductive, although the TiO2 XPS core levels nonetheless displayed behavior indicative of a metal-electrolyte junction. In contrast, as the Ni thickness increased, the Ni phase was primarily metallic and the electrochemical behavior became highly conductive, with the AP-XPS data indicative of a metal-electrolyte junction. Electrochemical and microtopographical methods have been employed to better define the nature of the TiO2/Ni electrodes and to contextualize the AP-XPS results

Protection of inorganic semiconductors for sustained, efficient photoelectrochemical water oxidation

Small-band-gap (Eg < 2 eV) semiconductors must be stabilized for use in integrated devices that convert solar energy into the bonding energy of a reduced fuel, specifically H2(g) or a reduced-carbon species such as CH3OH or CH4. To sustainably and scalably complete the fuel cycle, electrons must be liberated through the oxidation of water to O2(g). Strongly acidic or strongly alkaline electrolytes are needed to enable efficient and intrinsically safe operation of a full solar-driven water-splitting system. However, under water-oxidation conditions, the small-band-gap semiconductors required for efficient cell operation are unstable, either dissolving or forming insulating surface oxides. We describe herein recent progress in the protection of semiconductor photoanodes under such operational conditions. We specifically describe the properties of two protective overlayers, TiO2/Ni and NiOx, both of which have demonstrated the ability to protect otherwise unstable semiconductors for >100 h of continuous solar-driven water oxidation when in contact with a highly alkaline aqueous electrolyte (1.0 M KOH(aq)). The stabilization of various semiconductor photoanodes is reviewed in the context of the electronic characteristics and a mechanistic analysis of the TiO2 films, along with a discussion of the optical, catalytic, and electronic nature of NiOx films for stabilization of semiconductor photoanodes for water oxidation

Protection of inorganic semiconductors for sustained, efficient photoelectrochemical water oxidation

Small-band-gap (Eg < 2 eV) semiconductors must be stabilized for use in integrated devices that convert solar energy into the bonding energy of a reduced fuel, specifically H2(g) or a reduced-carbon species such as CH3OH or CH4. To sustainably and scalably complete the fuel cycle, electrons must be liberated through the oxidation of water to O2(g). Strongly acidic or strongly alkaline electrolytes are needed to enable efficient and intrinsically safe operation of a full solar-driven water-splitting system. However, under water-oxidation conditions, the small-band-gap semiconductors required for efficient cell operation are unstable, either dissolving or forming insulating surface oxides. We describe herein recent progress in the protection of semiconductor photoanodes under such operational conditions. We specifically describe the properties of two protective overlayers, TiO2/Ni and NiOx, both of which have demonstrated the ability to protect otherwise unstable semiconductors for >100 h of continuous solar-driven water oxidation when in contact with a highly alkaline aqueous electrolyte (1.0 M KOH(aq)). The stabilization of various semiconductor photoanodes is reviewed in the context of the electronic characteristics and a mechanistic analysis of the TiO2 films, along with a discussion of the optical, catalytic, and electronic nature of NiOx films for stabilization of semiconductor photoanodes for water oxidation

Operando Analyses of Solar Fuels Light Absorbers and Catalysts

Operando synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy in the tender X-ray energy range has been used to obtain information on the energy-band relations of semiconductor and metal-covered semiconductor surfaces while in direct contact with aqueous electrolytes under potentiostatic control. The system that was investigated consists of highly doped Si substrates that were conformally coated with ∼70 nm titania films produced by atomic-layer deposition. TiO2/electrolyte and Si/TiO2/Ni/electrolyte interfaces were then analyzed by synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy. The PES data allows for determination of the flat-band position and identification of potential regions in which Fermi level pinning, depletion, or accumulation occurred. Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) techniques were additionally used to investigate the properties of heterogeneous electrocatalysts for the oxygen-evolution reaction. Operando XAS including the pre-edge, edge and EXAFS regions allowed the development of a detailed picture of the catalysts under operating conditions, and elucidated the changes in the physical and electronic structure of the catalyst that accompanied increases in the applied potential. Specifically, XAS data, combined with DFT studies, indicated that the activity of the electrocatalyst correlated with the formation of Fe dopant sites in γ-NiOOH

Operando Analyses of Solar Fuels Light Absorbers and Catalysts

Operando synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy in the tender X-ray energy range has been used to obtain information on the energy-band relations of semiconductor and metal-covered semiconductor surfaces while in direct contact with aqueous electrolytes under potentiostatic control. The system that was investigated consists of highly doped Si substrates that were conformally coated with ∼70 nm titania films produced by atomic-layer deposition. TiO2/electrolyte and Si/TiO2/Ni/electrolyte interfaces were then analyzed by synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy. The PES data allows for determination of the flat-band position and identification of potential regions in which Fermi level pinning, depletion, or accumulation occurred. Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) techniques were additionally used to investigate the properties of heterogeneous electrocatalysts for the oxygen-evolution reaction. Operando XAS including the pre-edge, edge and EXAFS regions allowed the development of a detailed picture of the catalysts under operating conditions, and elucidated the changes in the physical and electronic structure of the catalyst that accompanied increases in the applied potential. Specifically, XAS data, combined with DFT studies, indicated that the activity of the electrocatalyst correlated with the formation of Fe dopant sites in γ-NiOOH