Risk analysis of maize-legume crop combinations with smallholder farmers varying in resource endowment in central Malawi

Using farmer resource typologies, adaptability analysis and an on-farm mother and baby trial approach, we evaluated the production risks of alternative maize-legume crop combinations for smallholder farmers in Chisepo, central Malawi between 1998 and 2002. Production benefits and risks of four soil fertility and food legumes, pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii) and mucuna (Mucuna pruriens), intercropped or rotated with maize, were compared by 32 farmers in 4 farmer resource groups (RGs) of different wealth status. The calculation of lower confidence limits was used to determine the production risk of the crops. Alternative crop technologies presented different risks to farmers of different wealth status, and the degree of risk affected their choice of soil fertility management strategy. The better-resourced farmers (RG 1) had larger yields with all crop combinations than the poorly resourced farmers (RG 4). Legumes integrated with maize significantly (p <0.001) raised maize grain yields by between 0.5 t ha-1 and 3.4 t ha-1, when compared with sole crop unfertilized maize. Fertilized maize was less of a risk for the better-resourced farmers (RG 1 and RG 2), and it yielded well when combined with the legumes. Maize-legume intercrops yielded more and were associated with less risk than the maize-legume rotations. Maize intercropped with pigeonpea was predicted overall to be the least risky technology for all RGs. We conclude that new crop technologies may pose more risk to poorly resourced farmers than to wealthier farmer

Poor people and poor fields? : integrating legumes for smallholder soil fertility management in Chisepo, central Malawi

Soil infertility undermines the agriculture-based livelihoods in Malawi, where it is blamed for poor crop yields and the creation of cycles of poverty. Although technologies and management strategies have been developed to reverse the decline in soil fertility, they are under-used by smallholder farmers. This study was conducted to assess with farmers the performance of a range of maize-legume technologies and their benefits on soil fertility management in central Malawi. Farmer participatory experimentation was a focus of the study. The aim was to facilitate learning and the interpretation of experiences, improve the communication of information about the concepts and technologies to farmers, and provide insights for researchers. Using a combination of survey and participatory methods, 136 smallholder farmers from Chisepo were grouped into four resource groups, comprising of better-resourced (RG 1 with 6 farmers), medium resourced (RG 2, 14 farmers), less well-resourced (RG 3, 64 farmers) and least-resourced groups (RG 4, 52 farmers). Analysing their livelihoods for their effects on soil fertility revealed that soil fertility management is a complex activity which is influenced by ownership of assets. Farmers from RG 1 and RG 2 owned more resources including cattle, had larger fields, hired-in labour for timely farm operations, earned more income and invested far more in soil fertility improvement. Farmers from RG 3 and 4 (who are in the large majority) were resource constrained and did not invest adequately in improving soil fertility. They had large food deficits due to poor crop yields. Ganyu labour (casual work done for other farmers for food or cash) was their main strategy to reduce food deficits. Farmers from all the four RGs were interested in working with research to explore strategies to improve soil fertility. They tested various grain- and green-manure-legumes, and mineral N and P fertiliser on maize and the legumes for effects on crop productivity and soil fertility. Associated production risk and interest in technology adoption were assessed. On-farm evaluation was done on maize (cv. MH18) in rotation with pigeonpea cv. ICP 9145,intercropped with groundnut (cv. CG 7), (Mz/Pp+Gn); intercropped with tephrosia (Mz+Tv); intercropped with pigeonpea (Mz+Pp) and in rotation with mucuna (Mz/Mp). These technologies were compared with sole crop maize without fertiliser (Mz−Ft) or with 35 kg N ha-1(Mz+Ft) in experiments with 32 farmers from the four RGs over four years. Economic and risk assessments were made. Maize grain yields (accumulated over the four years) were greater for farmers from RG 1 and 2 than RGs 3 and 4. Mz+Pp and Mz+Tv gave greater cumulative yields than Mz/Pp+Gn and Mz/Mp. The legumes improved maize grain yields by between 0.2 and 4 t ha-1(P -1to the legumes resulted in Mz+Tv, Mz/Pp+Gn and Mz/Mp being least risky to RG 1, RG2 and RG 3. Farmers in RG 1 had the highest returns to labour (USconv2.info.8 day-1with Mz-Ft and US.1 day-1with Mz+Pp) and these increased to 1.9 and 1.7 respectively with 35 kg N ha-1. Mz+Pp intercrop gave consistent positive returns across the RGs and was the only technology to provide positive returns to labour in RG 4. Use of pigeonpea was overall the least risky option, and was especially suited to least-resourced farmers. Application of phosphorus fertiliser (0, 20 kg P ha-1) to legumes significantly (P = 0.05) increased grain and biomass yields for mucuna, groundnut, soyabean, Bambara groundnut and cowpea by 1.0, 0.8, 0.5, 1.0 and 0.3 t ha-1compared with unfertilised plots. Cowpea and fertilised groundnut had larger yields in the home fields than middle fields, but other legumes performed better (P = 0.05) in the middle fields. Maize responses to small amounts of fertiliser (0, 15, and 30 kg N ha-1and 0, 20 kg P ha-1) in two weeding regimes showed that weeding twice significantly (P -1over weeding once (0.9 t ha-1). Stover yields (significant at P -1respectively. Mean grain N kg ha-1was 17.1 and 9.8 for plots weeded twice and once respectively while that of stover were 10.1 and 5.6 kg N ha-1. Applying N at 15 kg N ha-1increased maize yields, but the 30 kg N ha-1increased yield only on more clay soils due to the effects of mid-season dry spells on sandy soils. Except for the physiological efficiency of N (PEN), all agronomic indices of N use showed significant differences due to weeding (agronomic efficiency of applied fertiliser N (AEN) at P N) and partial factor productivity for N (PFPN) at P Nof 40.7and PFPNof 78.8 in plots weeded twice were within the ranges of 40–60 kg grain kg-1N and 40–80 kg grain kg-1N applied respectively. AENand REN values of 38.7 and 0.9 respectively were above the common range of 10-30 kg grain kg-1 N applied and 0.3-0.5 or 0.5–0.8 kg N kg-1. Mean indices from plots weeded just once were all within the ranges stated above but lower than indices from plots weeded twice; suggesting the unsustainability of the use of fertiliser without means to raise its efficiency through better management or combination with organic resources. Weeding twice gave higher returns to labour (USconv2.info.30 day-1) than weeding once (USconv2.info.05 day-1) and gross margins of US5.00 and US.00 with labour taken into account respectively.Farmers need to ensure timely weeding to get decent efficiencies and returns from the fertiliser, especially in drier cropping seasons. Using surveys, focus group discussions and the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), adoption of the ten legumes introduced to farmers in Chisepo was assessed among 136 farmers in 2004 and 84 farmers in 2007. Thirty-five percent of the farmers in 2004 and 22% in 2007 had adopted at least one of the legumes, with food grain legumes predominantly soyabean, groundnut, pigeonpea and to a lesser extent Bambara groundnut and cowpea being most adopted. Mucuna and tephrosia were adopted by few farmers while sunnhemp and grahamiana were not adopted at all. Farmers from RGs 1 and 2 adopted more of the legumes than those from RG 3 and 4. Lack of consistent markets, a lack of seed for planting, as well as land and labour shortages were cited for weak adoption. Soil fertility management by smallholder farmers is influenced by ownership of assets and the majority poorer farmers fail to invest adequately in improving soil fertility. In the absence of such resources, grain legumes will play an important role as a source of both food and organic matter to improve soil fertility. The participatory methods used in the study helped farmers better understand some of the soil fertility concepts and options, including the legumes. There is need to focus on how to assist farmers with practical knowledge to help them best combine organic and mineral fertiliser resources for improving soil fertility, and to develop and promote new dual-purpose legume options that feed humans and the soil. Key words: Adoption, analytical hierarchy process, crop yield, financial returns, food security, household assets, legume integration, livelihoods, NP fertiliser, nitrogen use efficiency, production risk, resource groups, smallholder, soil fertility, weeding. </p

Farmer and researcher partnerships in Malawi: developing soil fertility technologies for the near-term and far-term

In Malawi, intensive production of maize (Zea mays) is pursued on over 60% of smallholder land, yet application of nutrients is almost nil. To improve adoption of soil productivity-enhancing technologies, two participatory methods were pursued: (i) a novel 'mother-and-baby' trial design and (ii) participatory action research with communities in a southern Malawi watershed. The central 'mother trial' was managed by researchers (replicated within a site) and systematically linked to farmer-managed 'baby' trials to cross-check biological performance with farmer assessment. The watershed approach involved a partnership of researchers and farmers addressing soil management. Technologies tested in both approaches integrated legumes into existing maize-based systems, sometimes in combination with inorganic fertilizers. Across methods, legume intensification increased yields by approximately 40% (net benefit increase of approximately US$50 ha-1) and fertilizer increased yields by approximately 70% compared with continuous maize grain yields of about 1100 kg ha-1. Farmer assessment prioritized technologies that included secondary benefits, such as weed suppression, grain legume yields, and low-labour-demanding fertilizer. A survey indicated that participating researchers and extension staff had reservations about the amount of time required to interact with farmers, and no clear consensus emerged regarding the best approach. There has been wider adoption of the mother-and-baby trial method by scientists in neighbouring countries, indicating the value of systematically incorporating farmers' input

Evaluating the benefits of incorporating traditional birth attendants in HIV Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission service delivery in Lilongwe, Malawi

The objective of our intervention was to examine the benefits of incorporating traditional birth attendants (TBA) in HIV Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) service delivery. We developed a training curriculum for TBAs related to PMTCT and current TBA roles in Malawi. Fourteen TBAs and seven TBA assistants serving 4 urban health centre catchment areas were assessed, trained and supervised. Focus group discussions with the TBAs were conducted after implementation of the program. From March 2008 to August 2009, a total of 4017 pregnant women visited TBAs, out of which 2133 (53.1%) were directly referred to health facilities and 1,884 (46.9%) women delivered at TBAs and subsequently referred. 168 HIV positive women were identified by TBAs. Of these, 86/168 (51.2%) women received nevirapine and 46/168 (27.4%) HIV exposed infants received nevirapine. The challenges in providing PMTCT services included lack of transportation for referrals and absence of a reporting system to confirm the woman’s arrival at the health center. Non-disclosure of HIV status by patients to the TBAs resulted in inability to assist nevirapine uptake. TBAs, when trained and well-supervised, can supplement efforts to provide PMTCT services in communities. (Afr J Reprod Health 2014; 18[1]: 27-34).Keywords: Traditional Birth Attendants, PMTCT, Malaw

Designing a sustainable strategy for malaria control?

Malaria in the 21st century is showing signs of declining over much of its distribution, including several countries in Africa where previously this was not thought to be feasible. Yet for the most part the strategies to attack the infection are similar to those of the 1950s. Three major Journals have recently drawn attention to the situation, stressing the importance of research, describing the successes and defining semantics related to control. But there is a need to stress the importance of local sustainability, and consider somewhat urgently how individual endemic countries can plan and implement the programmes that are currently financed, for the most part, by donor institutions. On an immediate basis research should be more focused on a data driven approach to control. This will entail new thinking on the role of local infrastructure and in training of local scientists in local universities in epidemiology and field malariology so that expanded control programmes can become operational. Donor agencies should encourage and facilitate development of career opportunities for such personnel so that local expertise is available to contribute appropriately

Determination of α-guaiene and azulene chemical content in patchouli aromatic oil (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) from Indonesia by Near-infrared spectroscopy

This study evaluated the α-guaiene and azulene chemical composition of patchouli aromatic oil from Indonesia by Near-infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) combined with chemometric treatments. 84 oil samples collected around Indonesia were used, Konawe, Kolaka, Bogor, Garut, Aceh, Jambi, and Masamba. The spectral data were obtained using Fourier Transformed Near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectrometer in 1000 to 2500 nm. Several pretreatments processed the resulted transflectance spectra, and then partial least squares regression (PLSR) was applied. The data obtained from the spectra were evaluated based on the physical and chemical properties of the oil. α-guaiene and azulene chemical content were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry as a reference method. The best calibration for α-guaiene and azulene was second derivative with normalization mean centre, as data pretreatments. Both models had a high correlation coefficient (r&gt;0.90), a low coefficient of variation (CV&lt;2.98%), and an elevated ratio of standard error of prediction to standard deviation (RPD &gt;3), which proved the applicability of NIRS to quality evaluation of patchouli oil

Sustained Sexual Behavior Change after Acute HIV Diagnosis in Malawi

Background Identification of acute HIV infection (AHI) allows for important opportunities for HIV prevention through behavior change and biomedical intervention. Here, we evaluate changes in sexual risk behaviors among persons with AHI enrolled in a combined behavioral and biomedical intervention designed to reduce onward transmission of HIV. Methods Participants were randomized to standard HIV counseling, a multisession behavioral intervention, or a multisession behavioral intervention plus antiretrovirals. Sexual behaviors were assessed periodically over 1 year. Results Four weeks after diagnosis, the predicted probability of reporting multiple sexual partners decreased from 24% to 9%, and the probability of reporting unprotected sex decreased from 71% to 27%. These declines in sexual risk behaviors were sustained over follow-up irrespective of study arm. Conclusions Diagnosis of AHI alone may be sufficient to achieve immediate and sustained behavior change during this highly infectious period

Determination of α-guaiene and azulene chemical content in patchouli aromatic oil (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) from Indonesia by Near-infrared spectroscopy

256-262This study evaluated the α-guaiene and azulene chemical composition of patchouli aromatic oil from Indonesia by Nearinfrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) combined with chemometric treatments. 84 oil samples collected around Indonesia were used, Konawe, Kolaka, Bogor, Garut, Aceh, Jambi, and Masamba. The spectral data were obtained using Fourier Transformed Near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectrometer in 1000 to 2500 nm. Several pretreatments processed the resulted transflectance spectra, and then partial least squares regression (PLSR) was applied. The data obtained from the spectra were evaluated based on the physical and chemical properties of the oil. α-guaiene and azulene chemical content were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry as a reference method. The best calibration for α-guaiene and azulene was second derivative with normalization mean centre, as data pretreatments. Both models had a high correlation coefficient (r>0.90), a low coefficient of variation (CV<2.98%), and an elevated ratio of standard error of prediction to standard deviation (RPD >3), which proved the applicability of NIRS to quality evaluation of patchouli oil

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-1 Transmission among Persons with Acute HIV-1 Infection in Malawi: Demographic, Behavioral, and Phylogenetic Relationships

Background: Understanding sexual networks involving acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infections (AHI) may lead to prevention opportunities to mitigate high rates of onward transmission. We evaluated HIV-1 phylogenetic and behavioral characteristics among persons with AHI and their referred partners. Methods: Between 2012 and 2014, 46 persons with AHI in Malawi participated in a combined behavioral and biomedical intervention. Participants referred sexual partners by passive referral. Demographics and sexual behaviors were collected through interviews and HIV-1 genetic relationships were assessed with phylogenetics. Results: Among 45 AHI participants with HIV-1 sequences, none was phylogenetically-linked with another AHI index. There were 19 (42%) AHI participants who referred a single partner that returned for testing. Most partners (n = 17) were HIV-infected, with 15 (88%) presenting with an established infection. There were 14 index-partner pairs that had sequences available; 13 (93%) pairs were phylogenetically-linked dyads. The AHI index was female in 7/13 (54%) dyads. Age-disparate relationships among dyads were common (≥5-year age difference in 67% of dyads), including 3/6 dyads involving a male index and a younger woman. Index participants with a referred partner were more likely to report no casual partners and to be living with their current partner than participants not in dyads. Conclusions: Passive-partner referral successfully identified partners with genetically-similar HIV infections - the likely source of infection - but only 40% of index cases referred partners who presented for HIV-1 testing. Future work evaluating assisted partner notification may help reach susceptible partners or more people with untreated HIV-1 infections connected to acute transmission. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT01450189

Randomized Controlled Pilot Study of Antiretrovirals and a Behavioral Intervention for Persons with Acute HIV Infection: Opportunity for Interrupting Transmission

Background. Persons with acute HIV infection (AHI) have heightened transmission risk. We evaluated potential transmission reduction using behavioral and biomedical interventions in a randomized controlled pilot study in Malawi. Methods. Persons were randomized 1:2:2 to standard counseling (SC), 5-session behavioral intervention (BI), or behavioral intervention plus 12 weeks of antiretrovirals (ARVs; BIA). All were followed for 26-52 weeks and, regardless of arm, referred for treatment according to Malawi-ARV guidelines. Participants were asked to refer partners for testing. Results. Among 46 persons (9 SC, 18 BI, 19 BIA), the average age was 28; 61% were male. The median viral load (VL) was 5.9 log copies/mL at enrollment. 67% (10/15) of BIA participants were suppressed (<1000 copies/mL) at week 12 vs 25% BI and 50% SC (P = .07). Although the mean number of reported condomless sexual acts in the past week decreased from baseline across all arms (1.5 vs 0.3 acts), 36% experienced incident sexually transmitted infection by 52 weeks (12% SC, 28% BI, 18% BIA). Forty-one percent (19/46) of participants referred partners (44% SC, 44% BI, 37% BIA); 15 of the partners were HIV-infected. Conclusions. Diagnosis of AHI facilitates behavioral and biomedical risk reduction strategies during a high-transmission period that begins years before people are typically identified and started on ARVs. Sexually transmitted infection incidence in this cohort suggests ongoing risk behaviors, reinforcing the importance of early intervention with ARVs to reduce transmission. Early diagnosis coupled with standard AHI counseling and early ARV referral quickly suppresses viremia, may effectively change behavior, and could have tremendous public health benefit in reducing onward transmission