The GCN2 kinase is required for activating autophagy in response to indispensable amino acid deficiencies

ORGANIZING COMMITTEEChairs: Didier Attaix - Lydie Combaret - Daniel TaillandierDaniel Béchet - Agnès Claustre - Cécile Coudy-Gandilhon - Christiane Deval - Gérard Donadille - Cécile PolgeSCIENTIFIC COMMITTEEDidier Attaix - Lydie Combaret - Alfred L. Goldberg - Ron Hay - Germana Meroni - Marco Sandri - Daniel Taillandier - Keiji Tanaka - Simon S. WingPoster Session 3 - AutophagyImbalances in dietary amino acid (AA) supply, including deficits in one or more indispensable amino acids (IAA), are stressful conditions for the organism that needs to modulate a number of physiological functions to adapt to this situation. In particular, since there is no system dedicated for storing AA in the body, the release of free AA occurs by proteolysis at the expense of functional proteins, notably in the liver by up-regulating autophagy. This process can be rapidly mobilized within the cell in response to a number of stresses, by post-translational regulations of autophagy-related proteins already present in the cytosol. The protein kinase GCN2 is activated upon IAA scarcity in order to promote cell adaptation to a nutritional stress condition. In response to IAA limitation, GCN2 couples the accumulation of uncharged transfer RNAs to the phosphorylation of eIF2a on serine 51. By this mean, GCN2 diminishes the overall protein synthesis rate, while simultaneously activating a gene expression program mediated by the translational upregulation of the transcription factor ATF4. Our recent work has shown that the GCN2/p-eIF2a/ATF4 signaling pathway plays an essential role in the induction of transcription of a number of autophagy-related genes involved in the maintenance of the autophagic process in response to an IAA deficiency (B’chir et al., 2013). In the present study we sought to determine whether GCN2 could play a role in regulating the early stages of autophagy. The most upstream complex for triggering the autophagic process (initiation complex) is notably composed of the ULK kinase and the ATG13 bridging protein, and is classically viewed to be controlled by mTORC1. Indeed, the activity of the autophagy initiation complex has been shown to be modulated according to AA availability by the activity of mTORC1, which phosphorylates different sites in ULK. Here, by using a GCN2 knock-out mouse model we investigated the role of GCN2 in the upregulation of autophagy in the first hour of an IAA deficiency. Our results show that 1) GCN2 is required for upregulating liver autophagy in response to an IAA-deficient diet, which is confirmed in cell culture model; 2) this early activation of the autophagic process does not require the transcription factor ATF4; 3) moreover, while this effect can occur without concomitant inhibition of mTORC1 activity, our results suggest that ULK/ATG13 couple is involved in the GCN2-dependent activation of autophagy. Our results demonstrate that in the particular model of an IAA deficiency GCN2 plays a preponderant role in triggering the adaptive autophagy upregulation, a mechanism which can operate without concomitant inhibition of mTORC1 activit

Hypothalamic eIF2α signaling regulates food intake.

The reversible phosphorylation of the α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) is a highly conserved signal implicated in the cellular adaptation to numerous stresses such as the one caused by amino acid limitation. In response to dietary amino acid deficiency, the brain-specific activation of the eIF2α kinase GCN2 leads to food intake inhibition. We report here that GCN2 is rapidly activated in the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH) after consumption of a leucine-deficient diet. Furthermore, knockdown of GCN2 in this particular area shows that MBH GCN2 activity controls the onset of the aversive response. Importantly, pharmacological experiments demonstrate that the sole phosphorylation of eIF2α in the MBH is sufficient to regulate food intake. eIF2α signaling being at the crossroad of stress pathways activated in several pathological states, our study indicates that hypothalamic eIF2α phosphorylation could play a critical role in the onset of anorexia associated with certain diseases.This work was supported by grants from “Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale,” “Société Française de Nutrition,” Ajinomoto Amino Acid Research Program (3ARP), and “Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.”This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2014.01.00

Study of the role of the channel eIF2α / ATF4 in the regulation of gene expression of autophagy in a deficiency in amino acids

Chez les mammifères, les carences nutritionnelles telles que les carences en acides aminés constituent un stress nutritionnel important. Pour faire face à ces situations, l'organisme dispose de processus adaptatifs tels que l'autophagie, régulés par de multiples voies de signalisation. Au niveau cellulaire, plusieurs voies de signalisation sont impliquées dans la régulation de ces processus adaptatifs qui permettent la survie cellulaire lors de différentes conditions de stress environnementaux y compris la carence en acides aminés. En particulie,r la voie eIF2α/ATF4 joue un rôle crucial dans l'adaptation des cellules à ces différents stress notamment en régulant la transcription de nombreux gènes cibles spécifiques. L'objectif de ce travail était donc de déterminer le rôle de la voie eIF2α/ATF4 dans la régulation de la transcription des gènes impliqués dans l'autophagie en réponse à carence en acides aminés. En utilisant p62 comme un modèle de travail, nous avons montré que la kinase GCN2 qui phosphoryle eIF2α et les facteurs de transcription ATF4 et CHOP jouent un rôle clé dans la régulation de la transcription d'un grand nombre de gènes impliqués dans le processus autophagique en réponse à une carence en acides aminés. Nous avons en particulier identifié 3 classes de gènes de l'autophagie selon leur dépendance à ATF4 et CHOP et la liaison de ces facteurs sur les éléments spécifiques de leurs promoteurs en fonction de l'intensité du stress. PLus généralement, nous avons démontré que ce mécanisme pouvait également être activé par la kinase PERK lors d'un stress du réticulum endoplasmique. Enfin, nous avons pu montrer que durant les 6 premières heures de la carence en acides aminés, la voie eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP n'est pas impliquée dans la diminition de la viabilité cellulaire. Cependant, lorsque la carence en acides aminés est prolongée (16-48h), CHOP joue un rôle clé dans la régulation de l'apoptose et dans la répression du processus autophagique en contrôlant la transcription des gènes cibles spécifiques. Ainsi, ce travail a permis de mettre en évidence qu'en cas de carence en acides aminés, la voie eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP joue un rôle clé dans le devenir de la cellule. En fonction de la durée et de l'intensité du stress, la régulation très coordonnée de ces mécanismes moléculaires va permettre successivement la survie de la cellule et ensuite l'apoptose.In mammals nutritional deficiencies such as amino acid limitation are an important nutritional stress. To deal with these situations, the body has adaptive processes such as autophagy regulated by multiple signaling pathways. At the cellular level, several signaling pathways are involved in the regulation of these adaptive processes that allow cell survival in different conditions of environmental stress, including amino acid deficiency. In particular, the eIF2α/ATF4 pathways plays a crucial role in the adaptation of these cells to various stresses such as the transcriptional regulation of many specific target genes. The aim of this work was to identify the role of the eIF2α/ATF4 pathway in the stress-regulated transcription of mammalian autophagy genes. Using p62 as a working model, we have shown that the GCN2 eIF2α-kinase and ATF4 and CHOP transcription factors are required to increase transcription of a set of autophagy genes implicated in the formation, elongation and function of the autophagosome. We also identify 3 classes of autophagy genes according to their dependence on ATF4 and CHOP and the binding of these factors to specific promoter cis elements. Furthermore, different combinations of CHOP and ATF4 bindings to target promoters allow the trigger of a differential transcriptional response according to the stress intensity. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the same mechanism can also be activated by ER stress through PERK eIF2α-kinase activation. We also show that during the first 6h of starvation, CHOP up-regulates a number of autophagy genes while cell viability is not affected. By contrast, when the amino acid starvation is prolonged (16-48h), we demonstrated that CHOP has a dual role in both limiting autophagy and inducing apoptosis through the transcriptional activation of specific target genes. Thus, this work establishes that following amino acid starvation, the eIF2α/ATF4 pathway plays a key role in the cell fate. Depnding on the duration and intensity of the stress, the highly coordinated regulation of these molecular mechanisms sequentially will allow the survival of the cell and subsequently apoptosis

Etude du rôle de la voie eIF2α/ATF4 dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes de l'autophagie lors d'une carence en acides aminés

In mammals nutritional deficiencies such as amino acid limitation are an important nutritional stress. To deal with these situations, the body has adaptive processes such as autophagy regulated by multiple signaling pathways. At the cellular level, several signaling pathways are involved in the regulation of these adaptive processes that allow cell survival in different conditions of environmental stress, including amino acid deficiency. In particular, the eIF2α/ATF4 pathways plays a crucial role in the adaptation of these cells to various stresses such as the transcriptional regulation of many specific target genes. The aim of this work was to identify the role of the eIF2α/ATF4 pathway in the stress-regulated transcription of mammalian autophagy genes. Using p62 as a working model, we have shown that the GCN2 eIF2α-kinase and ATF4 and CHOP transcription factors are required to increase transcription of a set of autophagy genes implicated in the formation, elongation and function of the autophagosome. We also identify 3 classes of autophagy genes according to their dependence on ATF4 and CHOP and the binding of these factors to specific promoter cis elements. Furthermore, different combinations of CHOP and ATF4 bindings to target promoters allow the trigger of a differential transcriptional response according to the stress intensity. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the same mechanism can also be activated by ER stress through PERK eIF2α-kinase activation. We also show that during the first 6h of starvation, CHOP up-regulates a number of autophagy genes while cell viability is not affected. By contrast, when the amino acid starvation is prolonged (16-48h), we demonstrated that CHOP has a dual role in both limiting autophagy and inducing apoptosis through the transcriptional activation of specific target genes. Thus, this work establishes that following amino acid starvation, the eIF2α/ATF4 pathway plays a key role in the cell fate. Depnding on the duration and intensity of the stress, the highly coordinated regulation of these molecular mechanisms sequentially will allow the survival of the cell and subsequently apoptosis.Chez les mammifères, les carences nutritionnelles telles que les carences en acides aminés constituent un stress nutritionnel important. Pour faire face à ces situations, l'organisme dispose de processus adaptatifs tels que l'autophagie, régulés par de multiples voies de signalisation. Au niveau cellulaire, plusieurs voies de signalisation sont impliquées dans la régulation de ces processus adaptatifs qui permettent la survie cellulaire lors de différentes conditions de stress environnementaux y compris la carence en acides aminés. En particulie,r la voie eIF2α/ATF4 joue un rôle crucial dans l'adaptation des cellules à ces différents stress notamment en régulant la transcription de nombreux gènes cibles spécifiques. L'objectif de ce travail était donc de déterminer le rôle de la voie eIF2α/ATF4 dans la régulation de la transcription des gènes impliqués dans l'autophagie en réponse à carence en acides aminés. En utilisant p62 comme un modèle de travail, nous avons montré que la kinase GCN2 qui phosphoryle eIF2α et les facteurs de transcription ATF4 et CHOP jouent un rôle clé dans la régulation de la transcription d'un grand nombre de gènes impliqués dans le processus autophagique en réponse à une carence en acides aminés. Nous avons en particulier identifié 3 classes de gènes de l'autophagie selon leur dépendance à ATF4 et CHOP et la liaison de ces facteurs sur les éléments spécifiques de leurs promoteurs en fonction de l'intensité du stress. PLus généralement, nous avons démontré que ce mécanisme pouvait également être activé par la kinase PERK lors d'un stress du réticulum endoplasmique. Enfin, nous avons pu montrer que durant les 6 premières heures de la carence en acides aminés, la voie eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP n'est pas impliquée dans la diminition de la viabilité cellulaire. Cependant, lorsque la carence en acides aminés est prolongée (16-48h), CHOP joue un rôle clé dans la régulation de l'apoptose et dans la répression du processus autophagique en contrôlant la transcription des gènes cibles spécifiques. Ainsi, ce travail a permis de mettre en évidence qu'en cas de carence en acides aminés, la voie eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP joue un rôle clé dans le devenir de la cellule. En fonction de la durée et de l'intensité du stress, la régulation très coordonnée de ces mécanismes moléculaires va permettre successivement la survie de la cellule et ensuite l'apoptose

Dual role for CHOP in the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis to determine cell fate in response to amino acid deprivation

International audienceCHOP encodes a ubiquitous transcription factor that is one of the most important components in the network of stress-inducible transcription. In particular, this factor is known to mediate cell death in response to stress. The focus of this work is to study its pivotal role in the control of cell viability according to the duration of a stress like amino acid starvation. We show that during the first 6 h of starvation, CHOP upregulates a number of autophagy genes but is not involved in the first steps of the autophagic process. By contrast, when the amino acid starvation is prolonged (16-48 h), we demonstrated that CHOP has a dual role in both inducing apoptosis and limiting autophagy through the transcriptional control of specific target genes. Overall, this study reveals a novel regulatory role for CHOP in the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis in response to stress. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

The eIF2α/ATF4 pathway is essential for stress-induced autophagy gene expression

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The eIF2 alpha/ATF4 pathway is essential for stress-induced autophagy gene expression

In response to different environmental stresses, eIF2 alpha phosphorylation represses global translation coincident with preferential translation of ATF4, a master regulator controlling the transcription of key genes essential for adaptative functions. Here, we establish that the eIF2 alpha/ATF4 pathway directs an autophagy gene transcriptional program in response to amino acid starvation or endoplasmic reticulum stress. The eIF2 alpha-kinases GCN2 and PERK and the transcription factors ATF4 and CHOP are also required to increase the transcription of a set of genes implicated in the formation, elongation and function of the autophagosome. We also identify three classes of autophagy genes according to their dependence on ATF4 and CHOP and the binding of these factors to specific promoter cis elements. Furthermore, different combinations of CHOP and ATF4 bindings to target promoters allow the trigger of a differential transcriptional response according to the stress intensity. Overall, this study reveals a novel regulatory role of the eIF2 alpha-ATF4 pathway in the fine-tuning of the autophagy gene transcription program in response to stresses

Amino acid deprivation regulates the stress-inducible gene p8 via the GCN2/ATF4 pathway

International audienceIn mammals, the GCN2/ATF4 pathway has been described as the main pathway involved in the regulation of gene expression upon amino acid limitation. This regulation is notably conferred by the presence of a cis-element called Amino Acid Response Element (AARE) in the promoter of specific genes. In vivo, the notion of amino acid limitation is not limited to nutritional context, indeed several pathological situations are associated with alteration of endogenous amino acid availability. This is notably true in the context of tumour in which the alteration of the microenvironment can lead to a perturbation in nutrient availability. P8 is a small weakly folded multifunctional protein that is overexpressed in several kinds of cancers and whose expression is induced by different stresses. In this study we have demonstrated that amino acid starvation was also able to induce p8 expression. Moreover, we brought the evidence, in vitro and in vivo, that the GCN2/ATF4 pathway is involved in this regulation through the presence of an AARE in p8 promoter. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

The GCN2 kinase activates early events of autophagy

Autophagy Session : Selected oral communication, Poster N°37Organizing Committee: Chairs: Didier Attaix, Lydie Combaret and Daniel TaillandierThe protein kinase GCN2 detects free tRNA during stresses of essential amino acid (EAA) deficiencies and triggers an adaptive cell response by phosphorylating eIF2α. This leads to both a decrease in protein synthesis and the emergence of an ATF4-dependent gene expression program. Our previous work provided evidence that the GCN2/p-eIF2α/ATF4 pathway plays a major role in macro-autophagy by upregulating the expression of a number of autophagy-related genes at the transcriptional level, thereby contributing to expand the process over the long term. Here, we aimed at determining whether GCN2 could be involved in the early steps of activation of the autophagic process. Our data showed that autophagy was activated within the first hour of a single EAA deficiency in both cultured cells and mouse liver, a response that required GCN2. Furthermore, we observed that the phosphorylation of eIF2α contributed to this adaptive upregulation of autophagy whereas ATF4 was dispensable. Importantly, by using experimental conditions to activate GCN2 without affecting mTORC1 activity, our data showed that the GCN2-dependent activation of autophagy occurs without requiring concomitant mTORC1 inhibition. Overall these results highlighted that the GCN2/p-eIF2α signaling was sufficient to activate early stages of autophagy upregulation

Requirement for lysosomal localization of mTOR for its activation differs between leucine and other amino acids

International audienceThe mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is a master regulator of cell growth and metabolism. It controls many cell functions by integrating nutrient availability and growth factor signals. Amino acids, and in particular leucine, are among the main positive regulators of mTORC1 signaling. The current model for the regulation of mTORC1 by amino acids involves the movement of mTOR to the lysosome mediated by the Rag-GTPases. Here, we have examined the control of mTORC1 signaling and mTOR localization by amino acids and leucine in serum-fed cells, because both serum growth factors (or, e.g., insulin) and amino acids are required for full activation of mTORC1 signaling. We demonstrate that mTORC1 activity does not closely correlate with the lysosomal localization of mTOR. In particular, leucine controls mTORC1 activity without any detectable modification of the lysosomal localization of mTOR, indicating that the signal(s) exerted by leucine is likely distinct from those exerted by other amino acids. In addition, knock-down of the Rag-GTPases attenuated the inhibitory effect of amino acid- or leucine-starvation on the phosphorylation of mTORC1 targets. Furthermore, data from cells where Rag expression has been knocked down revealed that leucine can promote mTORC1 signaling independently of the lysosomal localization of mTOR Our data complement existing models for the regulation of mTORC1 by amino acids and provide new insights into this important topic