Involvement of the Cytokine MIF in the Snail Host Immune Response to the Parasite Schistosoma mansoni

We have identified and characterized a Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) family member in the Lophotrochozoan invertebrate, Biomphalaria glabrata, the snail intermediate host of the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni. In mammals, MIF is a widely expressed pleiotropic cytokine with potent pro-inflammatory properties that controls cell functions such as gene expression, proliferation or apoptosis. Here we show that the MIF protein from B. glabrata (BgMIF) is expressed in circulating immune defense cells (hemocytes) of the snail as well as in the B. glabrata embryonic (Bge) cell line that has hemocyte-like features. Recombinant BgMIF (rBgMIF) induced cell proliferation and inhibited NO-dependent p53-mediated apoptosis in Bge cells. Moreover, knock-down of BgMIF expression in Bge cells interfered with the in vitro encapsulation of S. mansoni sporocysts. Furthermore, the in vivo knock-down of BgMIF prevented the changes in circulating hemocyte populations that occur in response to an infection by S. mansoni miracidia and led to a significant increase in the parasite burden of the snails. These results provide the first functional evidence that a MIF ortholog is involved in an invertebrate immune response towards a parasitic infection and highlight the importance of cytokines in invertebrate-parasite interactions

Diagnosis and management of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in children

Nonconvulsive status epilepticus (NCSE) encompasses a wide range of diagnoses with variable outcomes and treatment recommendations. In children, NCSE can be observed in various conditions, including acute neurological injuries, specific childhood epilepsy syndromes and other neurological conditions, and can also be observed in individuals with learning difficulties. NCSE in children is thought to be under-recognized, and further studies examining the electrographic characteristics of very young children in NCSE would aid the prompt recognition of additional patients. Some subtypes of NCSE are probably more harmful than others, and long-term prospective studies are needed to evaluate the damaging potential of NCSE itself as opposed to that of the underlying circumstances in which it occurs. Specific data in childhood are clearly lacking, but extrapolation from adult studies indicates that aggressive treatment is most warranted in comatose patients. By contrast, a cautious approach seems to be indicated for absence status epilepticus, complex partial status epilepticus and electrical status epilepticus during sleep