Graft versus Host Disease in the Bone Marrow, Liver and Thymus Humanized Mouse Model

Mice bearing a “humanized” immune system are valuable tools to experimentally manipulate human cells in vivo and facilitate disease models not normally possible in laboratory animals. Here we describe a form of GVHD that develops in NOD/SCID mice reconstituted with human fetal bone marrow, liver and thymus (NS BLT mice). The skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract and parotid glands are affected with progressive inflammation and sclerosis. Although all mice showed involvement of at least one organ site, the incidence of overt clinical disease was approximately 35% by 22 weeks after reconstitution. The use of hosts lacking the IL2 common gamma chain (NOD/SCID/γc−/−) delayed the onset of disease, but ultimately did not affect incidence. Genetic analysis revealed that particular donor HLA class I alleles influenced the risk for the development of GVHD. At a cellular level, GVHD is associated with the infiltration of human CD4+ T cells into the skin and a shift towards Th1 cytokine production. GVHD also induced a mixed M1/M2 polarization phenotype in a dermal murine CD11b+, MHC class II+ macrophage population. The presence of xenogenic GVHD in BLT mice both presents a major obstacle in the use of humanized mice and an opportunity to conduct preclinical studies on GVHD in a humanized model

Mass spectrometry assays of plasma biomarkers to predict radiographic progression of knee osteoarthritis

Introduction: Biomarkers to identify osteoarthritis (OA) patients at risk for disease progression are needed. As part of a proteomic analysis of knee synovial fluid from normal and OA patients, differentially expressed proteins were identified that could represent potential biomarkers for OA. This study aimed to use mass spectrometry assays to identify representative peptides from several proteins in synovial fluid and peripheral blood, and assess their levels as biomarkers of OA progression. Methods: Multiplexed high throughput selected reaction monitoring (SRM) assays were developed to measure tryptic peptides representative of 23 proteins in matched serum and synovial fluid samples from late OA subjects at the time of joint replacement. Subsequently plasma samples from the baseline visit of 173 subjects in an observational OA cohort were tested by SRM for peptides from nine of these proteins: afamin, clusterin, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein, hepatocyte growth factor, kallistatin, insulin-like growth factor binding protein, acid labile subunit, lubricin, lumican, and pigment epithelium-derived factor. Linear regression was used to determine the association between the peptide biomarker level at baseline and change in joint space width (ΔJSW) from baseline to 30 months, adjusting for age and sex. Results: In the matched cohort, 17 proteins could be identified in synovial fluid and 16 proteins were detected in serum. For the progression cohort, the average age was 62 and average ΔJSW over 30 months was 0.68 mm. A high correlation between different peptides from individual proteins was observed, indicating our assays correctly measured their target proteins. Peptides representative of clusterin, lumican and lubricin showed statistically significant associations with joint space narrowing after adjustment for age and sex. Partial R2 values showed clusterin FMETVAEK and lubricin LVEVNPK peptide biomarkers explains about 2 to 3% of the variability of ΔJSW, similar to that explained by age. A biomarker score combining normalized data for both lubricin and clusterin peptides increased the model R2 to 0.079. Conclusions: Our results suggest that when combined, levels of peptides representative of clusterin and lubricin in plasma are as predictive of OA progression as age. Replication of these findings in other prospective OA cohorts is planned. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-014-0456-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

Gut microbiota induce IGF-1 and promote bone formation and growth

New interventions are needed to improve bone health and reduce the risk for osteoporosis and fracture. Dysbiosis is increasingly linked to metabolic abnormalities, although the effect of the microbiota on skeletal health is poorly understood. Previous studies suggest microbiota are detrimental to bone by increasing resorption. In this report, we show that the gut resident microbiota promote bone formation, as well as resorption, with long-term exposure to microbiota resulting in net skeletal growth. Microbiota induce the hormone insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which promotes bone growth and remodeling. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), produced when microbiota ferment fiber, also induce IGF-1, suggesting a mechanism by which microbiota affect bone health. Manipulating the microbiome or its metabolites may afford opportunities to optimize bone health and growth

Author Correction: Towards an arthritis flare-responsive drug delivery system

In the original version of this Article, financial support was not fully acknowledged. The PDF and HTML versions of the Article have now been corrected to include support from the National Football League Players Association

The apoptotic signaling pathway activated by Toll-like receptor-2

The innate immune system uses Toll family receptors to signal for the presence of microbes and initiate host defense. Bacterial lipoproteins (BLPs), which are expressed by all bacteria, are potent activators of Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2). Here we show that the adaptor molecule, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), mediates both apoptosis and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation by BLP-stimulated TLR2. Inhibition of the NF-κB pathway downstream of MyD88 potentiates apoptosis, indicating that these two pathways bifurcate at the level of MyD88. TLR2 signals for apoptosis through MyD88 via a pathway involving Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) and caspase 8. Moreover, MyD88 binds FADD and is sufficient to induce apoptosis. These data indicate that TLR2 is a novel ‘death receptor’ that engages the apoptotic machinery without a conventional cytoplasmic death domain. Through TLR2, BLP induces the synthesis of the precursor of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Interestingly, BLP also activates caspase 1 through TLR2, resulting in proteolysis and secretion of mature IL-1β. These results indicate that caspase activation is an innate immune response to microbial pathogens, culminating in apoptosis and cytokine production

Anion Exchanger 2 Regulates Dectin-1-Dependent Phagocytosis and Killing of Candida albicans

Anion exchanger 2 (Ae2; gene symbol, Slc4a2) is a plasma membrane Cl-/HCO3- exchanger expressed in the gastrointestinal tract, kidney and bone. We have previously shown that Ae2 is required for the function of osteoclasts, bone resorbing cells of the macrophage lineage, to maintain homeostatic cytoplasmic pH and electroneutrality during acid secretion. Macrophages require endosomal acidification for pathogen killing during the process known as phagocytosis. Chloride is thought to be the principal ion responsible for maintaining electroneutrality during organelle acidification, but whether Cl-/HCO3- exchangers such as Ae2 contribute to macrophage function is not known. In this study we investigated the role of Ae2 in primary macrophages during phagocytosis. We find that Ae2 is expressed in macrophages where it regulates intracellular pH and the binding of Zymosan, a fungal cell wall derivative. Surprisingly, the transcription and surface expression of Dectin-1, the major phagocytic receptor for Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Zymosan, is reduced in the absence of Ae2. As a consequence, Zymosan-induced Tnfα expression is also impaired in Ae2-deficient macrophages. Similar to Ae2 deficiency, pharmacological alkalinization of lysosomal pH with bafilomycin A decreases both Dectin-1 mRNA and cell surface expression. Finally, Ae2-deficient macrophages demonstrate defective phagocytosis and killing of the human pathogenic fungus C. albicans. Our results strongly suggest that Ae2 is a critical factor in the innate response to C. albicans. This study represents an important contribution to a better understanding of how Dectin-1 expression and fungal clearance is regulated

Anion Exchanger 2 Regulates Dectin-1-Dependent Phagocytosis and Killing of Candida albicans

Anion exchanger 2 (Ae2; gene symbol, Slc4a2) is a plasma membrane Cl-/HCO3- exchanger expressed in the gastrointestinal tract, kidney and bone. We have previously shown that Ae2 is required for the function of osteoclasts, bone resorbing cells of the macrophage lineage, to maintain homeostatic cytoplasmic pH and electroneutrality during acid secretion. Macrophages require endosomal acidification for pathogen killing during the process known as phagocytosis. Chloride is thought to be the principal ion responsible for maintaining electroneutrality during organelle acidification, but whether Cl-/HCO3- exchangers such as Ae2 contribute to macrophage function is not known. In this study we investigated the role of Ae2 in primary macrophages during phagocytosis. We find that Ae2 is expressed in macrophages where it regulates intracellular pH and the binding of Zymosan, a fungal cell wall derivative. Surprisingly, the transcription and surface expression of Dectin-1, the major phagocytic receptor for Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Zymosan, is reduced in the absence of Ae2. As a consequence, Zymosan-induced Tnfα expression is also impaired in Ae2-deficient macrophages. Similar to Ae2 deficiency, pharmacological alkalinization of lysosomal pH with bafilomycin A decreases both Dectin-1 mRNA and cell surface expression. Finally, Ae2-deficient macrophages demonstrate defective phagocytosis and killing of the human pathogenic fungus C. albicans. Our results strongly suggest that Ae2 is a critical factor in the innate response to C. albicans. This study represents an important contribution to a better understanding of how Dectin-1 expression and fungal clearance is regulated

Sex-Specific Protection of Osteoarthritis by Deleting Cartilage Acid Protein 1

Cartilage acidic protein 1 (CRTAC1) was recently identified as an elevated protein in the synovial fluid of patients with osteoarthritis (OA) by a proteomic analysis. This gene is also upregulated in both human and mouse OA by transcriptomic analysis. The objective of this study was to characterize the expression and function of CRTAC1 in OA. Here, we first confirm the increase of CRTAC1 in cartilage biopsies from OA patients undergoing joint replacement by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, we report that proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha upregulate CRTAC1 expression in primary human articular chondrocytes and synovial fibroblasts. Genetic deletion of Crtac1 in mice significantly inhibited cartilage degradation, osteophyte formation and gait abnormalities of post-traumatic OA in female, but not male, animals undergoing the destabilization of medial meniscus (DMM) surgery. Taken together, CRTAC1 is upregulated in the osteoarthritic joint and directly induced in chondrocytes and synovial fibroblasts by pro-inflammatory cytokines. This molecule is necessary for the progression of OA in female mice after DMM surgery and thus represents a potential therapy for this prevalent disease, especially for women who demonstrate higher rates and more severe OA