37 research outputs found

    Size dependence of offspring production in isopods : a synthesis

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    In isopods, parental care takes the form of offspring brooding in marsupial pouches. Marsupial brooding was an important step towards the origin of terrestrial lifestyles among isopods, but its potential role in shaping isopod life histories remains unknown. It is here considered that marsupial brooding imposes costs and creates a temporary association between the survival of mothers and that of their offspring. Integrating findings from different life history models, we predicted that the effects of marsupial brooding set selective conditions for the continuation of growth after maturation, which leads to indeterminate growth, and the production of larger offspring by larger females. Based on this perspective, a study on the size dependence of offspring production in the woodlouse Porcellio scaber was performed and the generality of the results was tested by reviewing the literature on offspring production in other isopods. In P. scaber and almost all the other studied isopods, clutch size is positively related to female size. Such dependence is a necessary pre-condition for the evolution of indeterminate growth. The body mass of P. scaber differed six-fold between the largest and smallest brooding females, indicating a high potential for post-maturation growth. Our review showed that offspring size is a rarely studied trait in isopods and that it correlates negatively with offspring number but positively with female size in nearly half of the studied species. Our study of P. scaber revealed similar patterns, but the positive effect of female size on offspring size occurred only in smaller broods, and the negative relation between clutch size and offspring size occurred only in larger females. We conclude that the intraspecific patterns of offspring production in isopods agree with theoretical predictions regarding the role of offspring brooding in shaping the adaptive patterns of female investment in growth, reproduction, and the parental care provided to individual offspring

    Scaling of organ masses in mammals and birds : phylogenetic signal and implications for metabolic rate scaling

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    The persistent enigma of why the whole-body metabolic rate increases hypoallometrically with body mass should be solved on both the ultimate and proximate levels. The proximate mechanism may involve hyperallometric scaling of metabolically inert tissue/organ masses, hypoallometric scaling of metabolically expensive organ masses, a decrease in mass-specific metabolic rates of organs or a combination of these three factors. Although there are literature data on the tissue/organ masses scaling, they do not consider phylogenetic information. Here, we analyse the scaling of tissue/organ masses in a sample of 100 mammalian and 22 bird species with a phylogenetically informed method (PGLS) to address two questions: the role of phylogenetic differences in organ/tissue size scaling and the potential role of organ/tissue mass scaling in interspecific metabolic rate scaling. Strong phylogenetic signal was found for the brain, kidney, spleen and stomach mass in mammals but only for the brain and leg muscle in birds. Metabolically relatively inert adipose tissue scales isometrically in both groups. The masses of energetically expensive visceral organs scale hypoallometrically in mammals, with the exception of lungs, with the lowest exponent for the brain. In contrast, only brain mass scales hypoallometrically in birds, whereas other tissues and organs scale isometrically or almost isometrically. Considering that the whole-body metabolic rate scales more steeply in mammals than in birds, the mass-specific metabolic rate of visceral organs must decrease with body mass much faster in birds than in mammals. In general, studying whole-body metabolic rate is not adequate for explaining its scaling, and measuring metabolic rates of organs, together with their contribution to body mass, is urgently required

    Thermal and oxygen conditions during development cause common rough woodlice ("Porcellio scaber") to alter the size of their gas-exchange organs

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    Terrestrial isopods have evolved pleopodal lungs that provide access to the rich aerial supply of oxygen. However, isopods occupy conditions with wide and unpredictable thermal and oxygen gradients, suggesting that they might have evolved adaptive developmental plasticity in their respiratory organs to help meet metabolic demand over a wide range of oxygen conditions. To explore this plasticity, we conducted an experiment in which we reared common rough woodlice (Porcellio scaber) from eggs to maturation at different temperatures (15 and 22 掳C) combined with different oxygen levels (10% and 22% O2). We sampled animals during development (only females) and then examined mature adults (both sexes). We compared woodlice between treatments with respect to the area of their pleopod exopodites (our proxy of lung size) and the shape of Bertalanffy鈥檚 equations (our proxy of individual growth curves). Generally, males exhibited larger lungs than females relative to body size. Woodlice also grew relatively fast but achieved a decreased asymptotic body mass in response to warm conditions; the oxygen did not affect growth. Under hypoxia, growing females developed larger lungs compared to under normoxia, but only in the late stage of development. Among mature animals, this effect was present only in males. Woodlice reared under warm conditions had relatively small lungs, in both developing females (the effect was increased in relatively large females) and among mature males and females. Our results demonstrated that woodlice exhibit phenotypic plasticity in their lung size. We suggest that this plasticity helps woodlice equilibrate their gas exchange capacity to differences in the oxygen supply and metabolic demand along environmental temperature and oxygen gradients. The complex pattern of plasticity might indicate the effects of a balance between water conservation and oxygen uptake, which would be especially pronounced in mature females that need to generate an aqueous environment inside their brood pouch

    Exploring the evolution of multicellularity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae under bacteria environment: An experimental phylogenetics approach

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    漏 2018 Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. There have been over 25 independent unicellular to multicellular evolutionary transitions, which have been transformational in the complexity of life. All of these transitions likely occurred in communities numerically dominated by unicellular organisms, mostly bacteria. Hence, it is reasonable to expect that bacteria were involved in generating the ecological conditions that promoted the stability and proliferation of the first multicellular forms as protective units. In this study, we addressed this problem by analyzing the occurrence of multicellularity in an experimental phylogeny of yeasts (Sacharomyces cerevisiae) a model organism that is unicellular but can generate multicellular clusters under some conditions. We exposed a single ancestral population to periodic divergences, coevolving with a cocktail of environmental bacteria that were inoculated to the environment of the ancestor, and compared to a control (no bacteria). We quantified culturable microorganisms to the level of genera, finding up to 20 taxa (all bacteria) that competed with the yeasts during diversification. After 600 generations of coevolution, the yeasts produced two types of multicellular clusters: clonal and aggregative. Whereas clonal clusters were present in both treatments, aggregative clusters were only present under the bacteria treatment and showed significant phylogenetic signal. However, clonal clusters showed different properties if bacteria were present as follows: They were more abundant and significantly smaller than in the control. These results indicate that bacteria are important modulators of the occurrence of multicellularity, providing support to the idea that they generated the ecological conditions-promoting multicellularity.Link_to_subscribed_fulltex

    Strategia 偶yciowa, wielko艣膰 kom贸rek i wydolno艣膰 fizjologiczna prosionka szorstkiego (Porcellio scaber) (Crustacea: Malacostraca: Isopoda)

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    Kolonizacja l膮du by艂a jednym z wa偶niejszych wydarze艅 w ewolucji 偶ycia na Ziemi. Formy l膮dowe wyst臋puj膮 w wielu taksonach i na przyk艂ad spo艣r贸d skorupiak贸w najefektywniej l膮d skolonizowa艂y przedstawiciele rz臋du r贸wnonog贸w (Isopoda). R贸wnonogi zasiedli艂y l膮d w czasie drugiej fali kolonizacji i w wyniku ewolucji przystosowa艂y si臋 do 偶ycia w wielu r贸偶norodnych 艣rodowiskach. W celu bli偶szego poznania cech potencjalnie zwi膮zanych ze zdolno艣ci膮 r贸wnonog贸w do skolonizowania i zasiedlenia r贸偶norodnych 艣rodowisk l膮dowych zbada艂em (Badania I-IV) r贸偶ne sk艂adowe historii 偶yciowej i biologii termalnej prosionka szorstkiego (Porcellio scaber) - pospolitego gatunku r贸wnonoga l膮dowego. Cechy, kt贸re wzi膮艂em pod uwag臋 to m.in.: liczebno艣膰 miotu i wielko艣膰 pojedynczego osobnika potomnego, krzywa wzrostu, rozmiar organ贸w wymiany gazowej, wielko艣膰 kom贸rek i wydolno艣膰 fizjologiczna. Pr贸cz problemu kszta艂towania wielko艣ci potomstwa i liczebno艣ci miotu wszystkie inne cechy bada艂em w kontek艣cie ich reakcji na d艂ugotrwa艂e (ca艂e 偶ycie) lub gwa艂towne (minuty, godziny) zmiany w temperaturze i zawarto艣ci tlenu w powietrzu. Ostatecznie moje badania mia艂y na celu wytworzenie sp贸jnego modelu r贸wnonoga jako strategii 偶yciowej, kt贸ra maksymalizuje dostosowanie pod presj膮 tworzon膮 przez zmienne 艣rodowisko 偶ycia. M贸j pierwszy projekt badawczy (Badania I) mia艂 na celu zbadanie wp艂ywu opieki rodzicielskiej (rozw贸j potomstwa w strukturach cia艂a matki) na ewolucj臋 (i) niezdeterminowanego wzrostu oraz (ii) pozytywnej korelacji mi臋dzy wielko艣ci膮 matki a wielko艣ci膮 jej potomstwa. W tym celu zmierzy艂em 艣redni膮 wielko艣膰 osobnika potomnego, liczebno艣膰 miotu i wielko艣膰 matki u prosionka szorstkiego oraz oszacowa艂em mo偶liwo艣膰 wzrostu samic po osi膮gni臋ciu dojrza艂o艣ci. 呕eby sformu艂owa膰 bardziej og贸lne wnioski dotycz膮ce ca艂ego rz臋du r贸wnonog贸w dokona艂em przegl膮du literatury dotycz膮cej rozrodu r贸wnonog贸w, kt贸rego celem by艂o sprawdzenie jak powszechne jest wyst臋powanie pozytywnej korelacji mi臋dzy wielko艣ci膮 matki i wielko艣ci膮 potomstwa w tej grupie. Kolejne dwa projekty badawcze (Badania II i III) koncentrowa艂y si臋 na wp艂ywie temperatury i dost臋pno艣ci tlenu na (i) wzrost prosionk贸w z odniesieniem do wielko艣ci narz膮d贸w wymiany gazowej (p艂uca pleopodalne) (Badania II) oraz (ii) osi膮gi fizjologiczne prosionk贸w w wymagaj膮cych metabolicznie warunkach w odniesieniu do wielko艣ci ich kom贸rek w oku i jelitach (Badania III). Obydwa projekty badawcze bazowa艂y na d艂ugoterminowym eksperymencie, w kt贸rym prosionki by艂y hodowane od stadium jaja do doros艂o艣ci w dw贸ch st臋偶eniach tlenu (10 and 22 % O2) i dw贸ch temperaturach (15 and 22 掳C). Czwarty projekt badawczy (Badania IV) mia艂 na celu sprawdzenie wp艂ywu zawarto艣ci tlenu na osi膮gi fizjologiczne w gradiencie temperatury. W ramach tego projektu przeprowadzi艂em cztery eksperymenty behawioralne, w kt贸rych mierzy艂em wp艂yw obni偶onej zawarto艣ci tlenu na preferowan膮 temperatur臋, zale偶no艣膰 mi臋dzy temperatur膮 a aktywno艣ci膮 lokomotoryczn膮 oraz na minimalne i maksymalne krytyczne temperatury. Badania I pokaza艂y pozytywn膮 korelacj臋 mi臋dzy mas膮 cia艂a samic prosionka szorstkiego i mas膮 cia艂a potomstwa, ale jedynie w przypadku bardzo ma艂o liczebnych miot贸w. Z przegl膮du literatury wynika, 偶e zale偶no艣膰 taka by艂a rzadko badana u r贸wnonog贸w, ale dotychczasowe dane sugeruj膮, 偶e u 50% przebadanych gatunk贸w korelacja wielko艣ci matki z wielko艣ci膮 potomstwa jest pozytywna. Zgodnie z modelami teoretycznymi oznacza to, 偶e rozw贸j m艂odych w komorze l臋gowej u r贸wnonog贸w mo偶e mie膰 ewolucyjne konsekwencje w postaci inwestycji matki w pojedyncze potomstwo co w rezultacie mo偶e prowadzi膰 do ewolucji pozytywnej korelacji mi臋dzy mas膮 cia艂a matki a mas膮 cia艂a jej potomstwa. Wzrost niezdeterminowany by艂 wcze艣niej opisywany u r贸wnonog贸w, a moje badania potwierdzaj膮 jego wyst臋powanie u P. scaber. Najmniejsza rozmna偶aj膮ca si臋 samica P. scaber wa偶y艂a 21.682 mg, a najwi臋ksza 131.236 mg co pokazuje, 偶e u tego gatunku wi臋ksza cz臋艣膰 wzrostu zachodzi po osi膮gni臋ciu dojrza艂o艣ci. Taka strategia wzrostu mo偶e wyewoluowa膰 (zgodnie z teoretycznymi modelami historii 偶yciowych) jako konsekwencja koszt贸w i ogranicze艅 wynikaj膮cych z rozwoju potomstwa w komorach l臋gowych. Badania II pokaza艂y, 偶e w wysokich temperaturach prosionki ros艂y szybciej, a dost臋pno艣膰 tlenu nie wp艂ywa艂a na ich wzrost. Jednocze艣nie, w wysokiej temperaturze p艂uca by艂y mniejsze i taki sam efekt by艂 obecny u zwierz膮t rozwijaj膮cych si臋 w niskiej zawarto艣ci tlenu (za wyj膮tkiem doros艂ych samic). Wynik ten sugeruje, 偶e brak reakcji na zawarto艣膰 tlenu na poziomie tempa wzrostu mo偶e by膰 zwi膮zany z plastycznymi zmianami wielko艣ci p艂uc. Badania III pokaza艂y, 偶e kom贸rki prosionka szorstkiego by艂y nieznacznie mniejsze w warunkach niskiej zawarto艣ci tlenu (posiadanie ma艂ych kom贸rek powinno by膰 korzystniejsze w wysokiej temperaturze i niskiej zawarto艣ci tlenu). Temperatura i zawarto艣膰 tlenu w jakich zwierz臋ta si臋 rozwija艂y nie mia艂y wp艂ywu na ich zdolno艣膰 do radzenia sobie z wymagaj膮cymi metabolicznie warunkami. Badania IV pokaza艂y, 偶e prosionki pod wp艂ywem obni偶onej zawarto艣ci tlenu wybiera艂y mikro艣rodowiska o ni偶szej temperaturze, porusza艂y si臋 wolniej, osi膮ga艂y maksymaln膮 pr臋dko艣膰 poruszania si臋 w ni偶szej temperaturze oraz mia艂y ni偶sz膮 maksymaln膮 temperatur臋 krytyczn膮 ni偶 zwierz臋ta badane w warunkach normalnej zawarto艣ci tlenu. Te wyniki wspieraj膮 hipotezy przewiduj膮ce, 偶e zar贸wno tolerancja termiczna jak i wydolno艣膰 fizjologiczna organizm贸w zmiennocieplnych w r贸偶nych temperaturach mo偶e by膰 kszta艂towana przez dost臋p do tlenu. Wyniki te wskazuj膮 tak偶e na mo偶liwe ekologiczne konsekwencje zr贸偶nicowania warunk贸w tlenowych w 艣rodowisku 偶ycia r贸wnonog贸w. Chocia偶 moje badania koncentrowa艂y si臋 na jednym gatunku (prosionku szorstkim) to daj膮 one mo偶liwo艣膰 sformu艂owania trzech uog贸lnionych wniosk贸w maj膮cych znaczenie dla zrozumienia ekologii wszystkich r贸wnonog贸w. (i) Rozw贸j potomstwa w komorze l臋gowej samicy mo偶e by膰 czynnikiem prowadz膮cym do wyewoluowania pozytywnej zale偶no艣ci mi臋dzy wielko艣ci膮 matki a wielko艣ci膮 jej potomstwa. (ii) Termiczne i tlenowe warunki czasie rozwoju powinny by膰 traktowane jako dwa istotne czynniki 艣rodowiskowe kszta艂tuj膮ce r贸偶ne cechy u r贸wnonog贸w. Temperatura wp艂ywa g艂贸wnie na wielko艣膰 p艂uc i tempo wzrostu a tlen wp艂ywa na wielko艣膰 p艂uc i w ma艂ym stopniu na wielko艣膰 kom贸rek. (iii) Gwa艂towne i kr贸tkotrwa艂e zmiany w warunkach tlenowych powinny by膰 traktowane jako istotny czynnik, kt贸ry kszta艂tuje tolerancj臋 wysokich temperatur u r贸wnonog贸w oraz ich krzyw膮 osi膮g贸w w gradiencie temperatury. R贸wnie偶 ma wp艂yw na wyb贸r warunk贸w termicznych dokonywany przez r贸wnonogi w ich mikrosiedliskach.Land colonization was one of the most important steps in life evolution. Many taxa colonized land, and among Crustaceans the most successful colonizers were isopods - the group which settled on land during the second wave of land invasion and subsequently adapted to a wide range of terrestrial habitats. Addressing biological characteristics that potentially relate to the capacity of isopods to colonize and inhabit terrestrial environments, I studied (study IIV) different elements of the life history and thermal biology of the common rough woodlouse (Porcellio scaber), a common species of terrestrial isopods. The characteristics taken into account included offspring size and clutch size, growth pattern, the size of respiratory organs, cell size and physiological performance. Apart from offspring size and clutch size, all other traits were studied with reference to their reactions to either prolonged (lifetime) or acute (minutes, hours) changes in temperature and oxygen conditions. Ultimately, my research aimed at creating a coherent view of an isopod, as a life history strategy that maximizes fitness under challenges imposed by the environmental variance. My first study (study I) explored effects of offspring brooding on the origin of (i) an indeterminate growth strategy and (ii) a positive correlation between female size and offspring size. To achieve this goal, I measured offspring size, clutch size and female size in P. scaber and evaluated how much P. scaber females grow after maturation. To formulate general conclusions about isopods, I reviewed published data on different isopod species, testing how commonly isopods evolved a positive correlation between offspring size and female size. My next two studies of P. scaber (study II & III) focused on the effects f temperature and oxygen supply on (i) woodlice growth with reference to the size of respiratory organs (pleopodal lungs) (study II), and (ii) woodlice performance under metabolically demanding conditions with reference to cell size in eyes and the gut (study III). Both studies took advantage of a long term experiment in which P. scaber woodlice were reared from egg to adulthood in two oxygen concentrations (10 and 22 % O2) and two temperatures (15 and 22 掳C). My fourth study (study IV) examined effects of oxygen concentration on the thermal performance of P. scaber, which involved four behavioral experiments measuring the effects of oxygen availability on preferred temperatures, thermal dependence of locomotor activity, and the maximal and minimal critical temperatures. Study I revealed a positive correlation between the body mass of P. scaber females and the body mass of their offspring, but this relationship existed only among females with extremely small clutches. According to my literature review, this life history pattern was very rarely studied in isopods, but available data suggest that it might characterize 50% of isopod species. According to life history models, brooding may have consequences for the investments of females to offspring, resulting in a positive correlation between offspring size and female size. Indeterminate growth was reported previously in isopods and this growth pattern was also confirmed by my results for P. scaber. The smallest reproducing female weighted 21.682 mg and the biggest weighted 131.236 mg, which means that the majority of growth is realized in P. scaber females after maturation. According to life history models, this type of growth strategy might evolve as a consequence of costs and limits imposed by brooding. Study II revealed that P. scaber woodlice grew faster in high temperatures and oxygen availability did not affect their growth. Also, P. scaber developed smaller lungs in response to either higher temperatures or lower oxygen availability (with the exception of adult females). This result suggests that the irresponsiveness of growth pattern of P. scaber to oxygen conditions may be related to plastic changes in lung size. Study III demonstrated that the cells of P. scaber in the eyes and the gut were slightly smaller under low oxygen availability, but their size was not affected by temperature (smaller cells are proposed to be beneficial at higher temperatures and low oxygen availability). Conditions in which animals were reared did not affect their ability to cope with metabolically demanding conditions. Study IV demonstrated that P. scaber exposed to low oxygen availability preferred lower temperatures, run slower, achieved the maximal speed in lower temperature and had lower maximal critical temperatures than animals in normal atmospheric oxygen concentration. These results support the idea of oxygen limitation of thermal tolerance and performance and also indicate possible ecological consequences of differences in oxygen availability in natural habitats of isopods. Although my research mainly concerned P. scaber, it offers an opportunity to formulate three generalizations about isopods, which have apparent relevance for isopods' ecology: (i) brooding may be an important evolutionary factor for isopods that leads to the origin of a positive correlation between offspring size and mother size and favors indeterminate growth strategy; (ii) thermal and oxygen conditions during development should be regarded as two important environmental factors that shape isopods' traits, with temperature affecting mainly lung size and somatic growth, and oxygen level affecting mainly lung size and to some extent cell size; (iii) acute changes of oxygen conditions should be regarded as an important factor that shapes isopods' thermal performance and thermal tolerance as well as their preferences for thermal conditions in microhabitats

    Changes in the byssal production rate in zebra mussel due to the threat of predators.

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    Ma艂偶 racicznica zmienna (Dreissena polymorpha) reaguje na obecno艣膰 drapie偶nika w 艣rodowisku, mi臋dzy innymi zmieniaj膮c si艂臋 przyczepu do pod艂o偶a, stopie艅 agregacji, tempo poruszania si臋, wybi贸rczo艣膰 wzgl臋dem konsumowanych grup fitoplanktonu. Celem niniejszych bada艅 by艂o sprawdzenie zmian, jakie zachodz膮 w sile przyczepu i stopniu agregacji ma艂偶y pod wp艂ywem czterech rodzaj贸w sygna艂u o zagro偶eniu drapie偶nictwem: czystej wody, zgniecionych osobnik贸w ma艂偶y, ryby (p艂oci, kt贸ra jest wa偶nym drapie偶nikiem racicznicy) karmionej ochotk膮 i ryby karmionej racicznicami. Zaobserwowano, 偶e ma艂偶e - w por贸wnaniu z zabiegiem kontrolnym -zwi臋kszaj膮 si艂臋 przyczepu w obecno艣ci p艂oci (niezale偶nie od jej diety), natomiast w zabiegu z gniecionymi osobnikami tego samego gatunku si艂a istotnie nie zmieni艂a si臋. Stopie艅 agregacji ma艂偶y by艂 wi臋kszy w ka偶dym zabiegu z informacj膮 o drapie偶nictwie ni偶 w czystej wodzie. Wyniki bada艅 sugeruj膮, 偶e ma艂偶e w przypadku obecno艣ci sygna艂u o potencjalnym zagro偶eniu w przysz艂o艣ci (ryba) inwestuj膮 w przyczep, natomiast w przypadku obecno艣ci sygna艂u o bezpo艣rednim zagro偶eniu (zgniecione ma艂偶e) nie inwestuj膮 w kosztowne energetycznie wytwarzanie bisioru. Prawdopodobnie zmniejszaj膮 r贸wnocze艣nie tempo metabolizmu, co mo偶e by膰 strategi膮 chemicznego ukrywania si臋.Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) reacts on the presence of predator in environment in many ways such as: changing attachment strength to the bottom, aggregation level, mobility, selectivity of consumed groups of phytoplankton. The aim of this research was checking the changes which occures in atachment strength and aggregation level due to four types of cues: pure water, crushed conspecifics, fish (common roach, important predator of zebra mussel) fed with Chironomus sp. and fish fed with mussel. It was observed that mussels increas the attachment strength (comparing to control group) in presence of fish (independently of its diet). In presence of crushed conspecifics the strength did not change. The level of aggregation was higher in every treatment with information of predation than in pure water.The results suggest that mussels in the case of presence of signal of potential threat in future (fish) they invest in the attachment strength, whereas in the presence of direct threat of predation cue (crushed mussels) do not invest in energeticaly costly byssal production. Probably they reduce the metabolic rate at the same time, what can be a strategy of chemical hiding

    Food diversity of stoat (Mustela erminea)

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    Stoat (Mustela erminea) is a considerable well examined species from family of weasels (Mustelidae) with regards to food habits. The goal of the paper is focused on review of available scientific literature about diet of stoat in diverse areas of the world. Stoat depredate mainly on rodents, especially from genus Microtus, Lemmus, Myodes and Arvicola, also Mus, Rattus and on lagomorphs. There Shrews hardly any appear in stoat鈥檚 diet. Microtus voles are the main source of food in Fennoscandia, where they are charactized by cyclic changes in abundance. During periods of declinig abundance of voles, stoats prey on other rodents and birds. Lagomorphs in Fennoskandia are prey mainly of male stoats. However, in Great Britain there is no difference between sexes in frequency of killed lagomorphes, because British stoats are generally bigger than their conspecifics in other regions. In Italian Alps important component of stoat diet are fruits. Population introduced to New Zealand prey on rodents, lagomorphs and birds (stoats are a serious threat to native species). In periods of declinig abundance of rodents in some areas of New Zealand important component of diet become invertebrates, especially orthopters weta. The conclusion which can be drawn from the revicion of literature focused on stoat鈥檚 diet is that, this animal is characterized by a diversified diet with a strong preference towards rodents.Gronostaj (Mustela erminea) jest stosunkowo dobrze zbadanym pod wzgl臋dem zwyczaj贸w pokarmowych zwierz臋ciem z rodziny 艂asicowatych (Mustelidae). W niniejszej pracy skoncentrowano si臋 na przegl膮dzie dost臋pnej literatury naukowej o diecie gronostaja z r贸znych obszar贸w 艣wiata. Gronostaj od偶ywia si臋 przede wszystkim gryzoniami, g艂贸wnie z rodzaju Microtus, Lemmus, Myodes, Arvicola, r贸wnie偶 Mus i Rattus oraz zaj臋czakami (Lagomorpha). Praktycznie brak w diecie ryj贸wek. Norniki stanowi膮 g贸wne 藕r贸d艂o pokarmu na obszarze Fennoskandii, gdzie charakteryzuj膮 si臋 cyklicznymi zmianami liczebno艣ci. W okresach spadku liczebno艣ci nornik贸w gronostaje 偶eruj膮 na innych gryzoniach i na ptakach. Zaj膮cokszta艂tne w Fennoskandii padaj膮 ofiar膮 g艂贸wnie samc贸w. Natomiast na terenie Wielkiej Brytanii brak r贸偶nic mi臋dzy p艂ciami w cz臋stotliwo艣ci zabijania zaj膮cokszta艂tnych, co wynika z faktu, 偶e tamtejsze gronostaje s膮 og贸lnie wi臋ksze. Na terenie Alp istotnym sk艂adnikiem pokarmu sa owoce. Natomiast introdukowana na teren Nowej Zelandii populacja gronostaja 偶eruje na gryzoniach, zaj膮cokszta艂tnych oraz ptakach (stanowi膮c zagro偶enie dla rodzimych gatunk贸w). W okresie spadku liczebno艣ci gryzoni w, niekt贸rych rejonach istotnym sk艂adnikiem diety staj膮 si臋 bezkr臋gowce, szczeg贸lnie szara艅czaki weta. Z przegl膮du literatury na temat diety gronostaja mo偶na wyci膮gn膮膰 wniosek, 偶e zwierz臋ta te charakteryzuj膮 si臋 zr贸偶nicowaniem geograficznym pod wzgl臋dem pobieranego pokarmu wykazuj膮c jednak dosy膰 siln膮 preferencj臋 w stosunku do gryzoni
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