Conserved expression of vertebrate microvillar gene homologs in choanocytes of freshwater sponges

International audienceBackground: The microvillus is a versatile organelle that serves important functions in disparate animal cell types. However, from a molecular perspective, the microvillus has been well studied in only a few, predominantly vertebrate, contexts. Little is known about how differences in microvillar structure contribute to differences in function, and how these differences evolved. We sequenced the transcriptome of the freshwater sponge, Ephydatia muelleri, and examined the expression of vertebrate microvillar gene homologs in choanocytes—the only microvilli-bearing cell type present in sponges. Sponges offer a distant phylogenetic comparison with vertebrates, and choanocytes are central to discussions about early animal evolution due to their similarity with choanoflagellates, the single-celled sister line-age of modern animals. Results: We found that, from a genomic perspective, sponges have conserved homologs of most vertebrate microvillar genes, most of which are expressed in choanocytes, and many of which exhibit choanocyte-specific or choanocyte-enriched expression. Possible exceptions include the cadherins that form intermicrovillar links in the enterocyte brush border and hair cell stereocilia of vertebrates and cnidarians. No obvious orthologs of these proteins were detected in sponges, but at least four candidate cadherins were identified as choanocyte-enriched and might serve this function. In contrast to the evidence for conserved microvillar structure in sponges and vertebrates, we found that choanoflagellates and ctenophores lack homologs of many fundamental microvillar genes, suggesting that microvillar structure may diverge significantly in these lineages, warranting further study. Conclusions: The available evidence suggests that microvilli evolved early in the prehistory of modern animals and have been repurposed to serve myriad functions in different cellular contexts. Detailed understanding of the sequence by which different microvilli-bearing cell/tissue types diversified will require further study of microvillar composition and development in disparate cell types and lineages. Of particular interest are the microvilli of choano-flagellates, ctenophores, and sponges, which collectively bracket the earliest events in animal evolution

Preparation of low-density xerogels through additives to TEOS-based alcogels

A new process for preparing silica xerogels with similar textural properties to silica aerogels by drying under vacuum has been studied. The xerogels are produced by adding, before gelation, 3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyltrimethoxysilane (EDAS) to tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS)-based alcogels, synthesised in a single base-catalysed (NH3) step. It is hypothesized that EDAS acts as a nucleation agent leading to silica particles with a hydrolysed EDAS core and a shell principally made of hydrolysed TEOS. The EDAS concentration and the basicity of the aqueous NH3 solution are important parameters influencing the resistance of the gel to drying stress. A decreasing EDAS/TEOS ratio or an increasing concentration of NH3 at constant EDAS content leads to less shrinkage during drying and so the final pore volume is larger. Gels prepared with a low EDAS/TEOS ratio (about 0.03) contain large particles (similar to 20 nm) due to the nucleation process by EDAS, thus the pores between those particles are also large and the drying stress is reduced. (C) 1999 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

Preparation of low-density xerogels by incorporation of additives during synthesis

Low-density xerogels were prepared by incorporation of an additive to alcogels prior to gelation. The additives studied are 3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyltrimethoxysilane (EDAS), 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (AMS), propyltrimethoxysilane (PMS), tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS) and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (AES) using tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as main silica precursor. Samples were also prepared with EDAS as additive and TMOS as main silica reagent. When the additive contains methoxy groups, it reacts first, forms nuclei on which the main reagent TEOS reacts to form the silica particles. The nucleation mechanism by the additive occurs only in case of a difference of reactivity between additive and main silica precursor. The other group of the additive (amine, alkyl group, ...) influences only the gelation time. In case of ethoxy groups (series AES/TEOS) or methoxy groups (series EDAS/TMOS) for both additive and main reagent, there is no nucleation by the additive. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

Textural properties of low-density xerogels

The extent of shrinkage during drying is controlled by the balance between the capillary pressure developed in the pore liquid and the modulus of the solid network. One first method to obtain low-density xerogels consists in strengthening TEOS-based alcogels by providing new monomers to the alcogel after gelation. In the second method, low-density xerogels are produced by surface modification (silylation) of the wet gel with trimethylchlorosilane. The capillary pressure is reduced and the presence of non-reactive species on the surface makes the shrinkage reversible. A reduction of the capillary pressure can be achieved by introduction of a substituted alkoxide 3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyltrimethoxysilane (EDAS) to a TEOS-based alcogel, synthesised in a single base-catalysed step. This additive acts as a nucleation agent leading to big silica particles (similar to 20 nm) with a low EDAS/TEOS ratio (similar to 0.03). The pores between those particles are also large and the drying stress is reduced. The textural properties of those three materials are compared: bulk densities of the samples modelled on the first and third method are varying in the same range (0.25-0.35 g/cm(3)) while xerogels obtained by the surface modification process are less dense (0.1-0.15 g/cm(3)). The biggest pores are observed in the third method. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved