Bacteriological quality of some ready to eat vegetables as retailed and consumed in Sabon-gari, Zaria, Nigeria

Some ready to eat leafy vegetables on sale at Sabon-gari market, Zaria were analysed for their bacterial flora and counts. Lettuce had aerobic plate count range of 2.0 x 107 to 5.7 x 108 cfu/g, cabbage had a count range of 1.3 x 107 – 5.6 x 108 cfu/g and cucumber had a range of count of 3.0 x 105 to 1.9 x 106. The coliform index showed lettuce to have a count of 8.8 x 106 – 1.3 x 109, cabbage was 2.1 x 106 to 8.0 x 107 cfu/g and cucumber was 8.0 x 105 to 1.9 x 106. Bacillus species and Staphylococcus aureus were the predominant bacteria isolated from these vegetables. The counts were obviously above the recommended standards for ready to eat vegetables especially coliforms which should be less than 10 coliform bacteria per gram( FAO, 1979). There is the need for hygiene officials to take interest on what is offered to consumers and specify acceptable handling practices

Determination of aflatoxin contamination in cassava flour sold in selected markets in Zaria, Kaduna state; Nigeria

Cassava (Manihot esculenta ) is a major staple food crop across tropical  sub-Saharan Africa. Poor drying during processing or storage, especially during the rainy season, often results in contamination by fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. Aflatoxins are among the mycotoxins which are secondary metabolites produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus which are a major health concern to man and livestock because of their acute and chronic health effects. The aim of this study was to determine aflatoxin contamination and to quantify the aflatoxin levels in cassava flour. A total of 36 samples of Cassava flour were collected in three (3) major markets in Zaria, these are: Samaru, Sabon Gari and Zaria City Markets to determine and quantify aflatoxins using enzyme linked immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). The results obtained showed that 22 out of 36 were contaminated with total aflatoxins at the range of 2.0μg/kg to 7.5μg/kg. This study indicated that there is low aflatoxin concentration in the Cassava and suggested that the cassava flour is safe and good for human consumption.Key words: Cassava, Aflatoxin, Fungi, Marke

Enteric bacteria of public health significance isolated from Zaria metropolis dumpsite soil

Wastes in dumpsites with no proper waste handling method are a source of pathogens to the soil, which in turn contribute to the emergence of community-acquired infections. Given the lack of data on the pathogens in dumpsites, this study isolated and identified enteric pathogenic bacteria found in dumpsite soils in Zaria Metropolis. Two hundred and twelve samples were collected from four dumpsites in Samaru, Sabon-Gari, Tudun-Wada and Zaria City over a period of twelve months (November 2014– December 2015) for isolation and characterization of enteric pathogenic bacteria. The organisms were isolated by the use of cultural methods on selective media and characterized using a series of biochemical tests and confirmed using microgen identification kits. Results were statistically analysed. Bacteriological analysis of the soil samples revealed a total of 178(84.0 %) isolates among which 46(21.7 %) enteric pathogenic bacteria identified in decreasing order of prevalence, Escherichia coli O157:H7 21(9.9 %), Salmonella spp. 18(8.5%), Vibrio cholerae non-O1 7(3.3 %). Other Gram-negative species were also identified. Samples from Tudun-Wada location have the highest occurrence of the target isolates 15(28.3%). The occurrence of enteric pathogenic species at various dumpsites points out to the faecal contamination of waste buy human or animals. Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Vibrio cholerae are associated to clinical diseases. Prompt attention and immediate action on the appropriate treatment of the dumpsites is recommended.Keywords: Enteric pathogenic bacteria, Gram-Negative, solid waste management, health risks of waste dumpsit

Physicochemical quality of drinking water from various water sources of Kaduna state, Nigeria

This study was undertaken in six Local government areas (LGA) of Kaduna from  March 2014- February 2015, with the aim of determining some physicochemical parameters of water being used by residents in the study areas. The results were also  compared with the World Health Organization (WHO), Nigerian Institute of Standards (NIS) permissible limits for all the   parameters. A total of fifty samples from different water sources were analysed for the following parameters: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Dissolved oxygen, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Nitrate, Electrical conductivity and pH using standard  methods. The values for conductivity (441.57 ± 107.13μhos/cm) and TDS (220.78 ± 53.56mg/l) were significantly higher for the borehole water samples (P<0.05), while the pH (7.27 ± 0.11) and nitrate (15.38 ± 1.29mg/l) values were significantly higher  during the rainy season (P<0.05). All the samples tested had their nitrate values less than the maximum level stipulated by both the NIS and WHO. Ninety-six percent of the samples had their pH and TDS within the recommended range (6.5-8.5 and 500mg/l  respectively). For the conductivity, the WHO standard differs from the NIS standard, and 60% met the WHO standard while 96% met the NIS standard.Key words: Potable water, Physicochemical parameters, season, WHO, NI

Differentiation of Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar and Entamoeba moshkovskii from diarrhoeic stools using Polymerase Chain Reaction in Kaduna, Nigeria

Background: Entamoeba species have been reported to cause a high morbidity and mortality rate. Aim: The study was aimed at detecting and differentiating E. histolytica, E. dispar and E. moshkovskii using molecular technique (PCR).Methods: Microscopic examination of the faecal samples was carried out by the Formol-Ether concentration technique. DNA was extracted from microscopic positive stool samples and used to amplify a part of the genus Entamoeba small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rDNA), using the Nested Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (NM-PCR).Results: Of the 528 faecal samples, 46 (8.7%) were positive for Entamoeba by microscopy. The PCR results showed that out of the 46 microscopy positive samples, 16 (34.8%) successfully generated species-specific amplicons of Entamoeba species DNA. The infection with E. dispar (68.8%; 11/46) was the most common, followed by E. histolytica (37.5%; 6/46) and E. moshkovskii (18.8%; 3/46). Of these, 7 (43.8%) were shown to contain only E. dispar, 3 (18.8%) contained only E. histolytica and 2 (12.5%) contained only E. moshkovskii. Mixed infection with E. histolytica and E. dispar was found in 3 (18.8%) and E. dispar and E. moshkovskii in 1 (6.3%) sample.Conclusion: This study therefore highlighted the great importance of the use of molecular techniques to differentiate between E. histolytica, E. dispar and E. moshkovskii because it obviates unnecessary chemotherapy with possible costs, side effects and drug resistance. The use of PCR in the diagnosis of amoebiasis and epidemiological survey in Nigeria is thus recommended.Keywords: Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba moshkovskii, DNA, Polymerase Chain Reaction, amoebiasi

Phylogenetics of aflatoxigenic moulds and prevalence of aflatoxin from in-process wheat and flour from selected major stores within northern Nigeria

Aflatoxigenic strains that produce aflatoxins may be similar morphologically but vary genetically. Sequenced aflR-1 gene from this work was used to study relatedness of aflatoxigenic strains. Yeast extract sucrose agar (YESA) supplemented with 0.3% cyclodextrin and 0.6 % sodium Desoxycholate (YCSD) was used to characterize aflatoxigenic moulds. Total aflatoxin content of the samples was determined using Enzyme Link immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Multiplex PCR was carried out on aflatoxigenic and some non aflatoxigenic moulds using the genes; aflR-1, omt-A, ver-1 and nor-1. The aflR-1 PCR products were sequenced and used for Basic Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) and to generate dendogram. While the raw wheat samples presented highest total aflatoxin range 0.6 – 49 μg/kg, major stores presented values of 0.50 – 28 μg/kg, higher than that obtained in-process samples (0.70 – 26 μg/kg). However, there was no significant differences (p≥0.05) between the major store total aflatoxin levels and that of in-process samples. Thirty seven (37 %) and 25 % of the wheat flour samples from in-process and major stores respectively exceeded the 10 μg/kg National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, Nigeria (NAFDAC) recommended limit for this product. Thirty six (36 %) and 21 % prevalence of wheat and wheat flour samples respectively analyzed from this work was contaminated with total aflatoxins. The multiplex PCR response from this work has demonstrated that there was consistency in the banding pattern of aflatoxigenic strains with respect to the major aflatoxin biosynthetic genes from this study. BLAST of the assembled AFL2T gene sequences was found to have compatibility with that of standard aflR-1 of NCBI Gene Bank that also created way of identifying the isolates. The bootstrap similarity matrix differentiated the isolates into two major clusters; sub-group and others assembled together indicating closer relatedness or general similarity. Some of the isolates varied greatly with visible mixtures of aflatoxigenic and non aflatoxigenic moulds and also random distribution of in-process and store isolates at different leaf nodes within the major clusters. Awareness and surveillance of aflatoxin levels by processors and regulatory bodies at raw material intake is advocated.Keywords: Moulds, Aflatoxin, Gene, Dendogra

Occurrence and antibiogram of Staphylococcus aureus in dairy products consumed in parts of Kaduna State, Nigeria

total of 160 dairy products comprising of 80 each of fresh milk and ‘Nono’  (Fermented and defatted) were collected. The samples were cultured and identified by routine bacteriological methods. Prevalence of S.aureus (8.75%) in the products was; for fresh milk 3.75% and ‘Nono’ 5%. The susceptibility profile of the isolates to nine antimicrobial agents revealed a high susceptibility to Gentamicin (100%),  Ciprofloxaxin (92.86%) and Chloramphenicol (92.86%). The isolates had high resistance to Tetracycline (85.71%), Cefoxitin (64.29%), Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid (64.29%) and Erythromycin (64.29%). A total of 9(64.29%) isolates were resistant to multiple antibiotics. Multiple antibiotics resistance index (MARI) ranged from 7.14% (0.7) to 21.43% (0.3). The presence of S.aureus and resistance to commonly used antibiotics by the isolates posses a health risk for consumers of these milk products.Key words: Dairy Products, Staphylococcus aureus, susceptibility profile, fresh milk, ‘Nono’

Physicochemical analysis of non-rhizosphere and rhizosphere soil of Sorghum bicolor (Guinea corn) field

Soil is one of nature's most dynamic sites of biological interaction, where crop nutrition are found. The rhizosphere is the area surrounding plant roots where microorganisms, particularly bacteria, are active, whereas non-rhizosphere soil, also known as bulk soil, is soil that lacks plant roots and does not belong to any rhizosphere soil. Physicochemical analysis of non-rhizosphere and rhizosphere soil of Sorghum bicolor field was determined. Before planting, physicochemical analysis of a soil was performed, and after planting, rhizosphere and bulk soil of Sorghum bicolor field were determined. Parameters considered in determining the soil's suitability for plant growth and development include, the pH, moisture content, water holding capacity, and organic matter content were all measured. For fourteen weeks, soil samples were collected every two weeks. Rhizosphere soil had pH range of 5.49 ± 0.02 – 8.15 ± 0.02, soil moisture content: 0.56 ± 0.01% – 1.22 ± 0.01, water holding capacity: 43.34 ± 0.47 ml/gm – 53.75 ± 0.55 ml/gm, organic matter: 30.12 ± 0.54 g kg-1 – 42.45 ± 0.02 g kg-1. Bulk soil had pH range of 6.72 ± 0.02 – 7.46 ± 0.03, soil moisture: 0.10 ± 0.00% – 2.13 ± 0.02%, water holding capacity: 42.82 ± 0.32 ml/gm – 44.42 ± 0.25 ml/gm and organic matter: 5.68 ± 0.65 g kg-1 – 30.13 ± 0.52 g kg-1. Prior to planting Sorghum bicolor, the soil texture revealed that it is sandy loam. After observing the soil, it can be concluded that it is versatile, productive, and capable of supporting the growth of Guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor)

Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Regular, detailed reporting on population health by underlying cause of death is fundamental for public health decision making. Cause-specific estimates of mortality and the subsequent effects on life expectancy worldwide are valuable metrics to gauge progress in reducing mortality rates. These estimates are particularly important following large-scale mortality spikes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. When systematically analysed, mortality rates and life expectancy allow comparisons of the consequences of causes of death globally and over time, providing a nuanced understanding of the effect of these causes on global populations. Methods: The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 cause-of-death analysis estimated mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) from 288 causes of death by age-sex-location-year in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations for each year from 1990 until 2021. The analysis used 56 604 data sources, including data from vital registration and verbal autopsy as well as surveys, censuses, surveillance systems, and cancer registries, among others. As with previous GBD rounds, cause-specific death rates for most causes were estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model—a modelling tool developed for GBD to assess the out-of-sample predictive validity of different statistical models and covariate permutations and combine those results to produce cause-specific mortality estimates—with alternative strategies adapted to model causes with insufficient data, substantial changes in reporting over the study period, or unusual epidemiology. YLLs were computed as the product of the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year and the standard life expectancy at each age. As part of the modelling process, uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated using the 2·5th and 97·5th percentiles from a 1000-draw distribution for each metric. We decomposed life expectancy by cause of death, location, and year to show cause-specific effects on life expectancy from 1990 to 2021. We also used the coefficient of variation and the fraction of population affected by 90% of deaths to highlight concentrations of mortality. Findings are reported in counts and age-standardised rates. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in GBD 2021 include the expansion of under-5-years age group to include four new age groups, enhanced methods to account for stochastic variation of sparse data, and the inclusion of COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality—which includes excess mortality associated with the pandemic, excluding COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis. For this analysis, 199 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 5 country-years of surveillance data, 21 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 94 country-years of other data types were added to those used in previous GBD rounds. Findings: The leading causes of age-standardised deaths globally were the same in 2019 as they were in 1990; in descending order, these were, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lower respiratory infections. In 2021, however, COVID-19 replaced stroke as the second-leading age-standardised cause of death, with 94·0 deaths (95% UI 89·2–100·0) per 100 000 population. The COVID-19 pandemic shifted the rankings of the leading five causes, lowering stroke to the third-leading and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to the fourth-leading position. In 2021, the highest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 occurred in sub-Saharan Africa (271·0 deaths [250·1–290·7] per 100 000 population) and Latin America and the Caribbean (195·4 deaths [182·1–211·4] per 100 000 population). The lowest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 were in the high-income super-region (48·1 deaths [47·4–48·8] per 100 000 population) and southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania (23·2 deaths [16·3–37·2] per 100 000 population). Globally, life expectancy steadily improved between 1990 and 2019 for 18 of the 22 investigated causes. Decomposition of global and regional life expectancy showed the positive effect that reductions in deaths from enteric infections, lower respiratory infections, stroke, and neonatal deaths, among others have contributed to improved survival over the study period. However, a net reduction of 1·6 years occurred in global life expectancy between 2019 and 2021, primarily due to increased death rates from COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality. Life expectancy was highly variable between super-regions over the study period, with southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania gaining 8·3 years (6·7–9·9) overall, while having the smallest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 (0·4 years). The largest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 occurred in Latin America and the Caribbean (3·6 years). Additionally, 53 of the 288 causes of death were highly concentrated in locations with less than 50% of the global population as of 2021, and these causes of death became progressively more concentrated since 1990, when only 44 causes showed this pattern. The concentration phenomenon is discussed heuristically with respect to enteric and lower respiratory infections, malaria, HIV/AIDS, neonatal disorders, tuberculosis, and measles. Interpretation: Long-standing gains in life expectancy and reductions in many of the leading causes of death have been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adverse effects of which were spread unevenly among populations. Despite the pandemic, there has been continued progress in combatting several notable causes of death, leading to improved global life expectancy over the study period. Each of the seven GBD super-regions showed an overall improvement from 1990 and 2021, obscuring the negative effect in the years of the pandemic. Additionally, our findings regarding regional variation in causes of death driving increases in life expectancy hold clear policy utility. Analyses of shifting mortality trends reveal that several causes, once widespread globally, are now increasingly concentrated geographically. These changes in mortality concentration, alongside further investigation of changing risks, interventions, and relevant policy, present an important opportunity to deepen our understanding of mortality-reduction strategies. Examining patterns in mortality concentration might reveal areas where successful public health interventions have been implemented. Translating these successes to locations where certain causes of death remain entrenched can inform policies that work to improve life expectancy for people everywhere. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Global Retinoblastoma Presentation and Analysis by National Income Level

Importance: Early diagnosis of retinoblastoma, the most common intraocular cancer, can save both a child's life and vision. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that many children across the world are diagnosed late. To our knowledge, the clinical presentation of retinoblastoma has never been assessed on a global scale. Objectives: To report the retinoblastoma stage at diagnosis in patients across the world during a single year, to investigate associations between clinical variables and national income level, and to investigate risk factors for advanced disease at diagnosis. Design, Setting, and Participants: A total of 278 retinoblastoma treatment centers were recruited from June 2017 through December 2018 to participate in a cross-sectional analysis of treatment-naive patients with retinoblastoma who were diagnosed in 2017. Main Outcomes and Measures: Age at presentation, proportion of familial history of retinoblastoma, and tumor stage and metastasis. Results: The cohort included 4351 new patients from 153 countries; the median age at diagnosis was 30.5 (interquartile range, 18.3-45.9) months, and 1976 patients (45.4) were female. Most patients (n = 3685 84.7%) were from low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). Globally, the most common indication for referral was leukocoria (n = 2638 62.8%), followed by strabismus (n = 429 10.2%) and proptosis (n = 309 7.4%). Patients from high-income countries (HICs) were diagnosed at a median age of 14.1 months, with 656 of 666 (98.5%) patients having intraocular retinoblastoma and 2 (0.3%) having metastasis. Patients from low-income countries were diagnosed at a median age of 30.5 months, with 256 of 521 (49.1%) having extraocular retinoblastoma and 94 of 498 (18.9%) having metastasis. Lower national income level was associated with older presentation age, higher proportion of locally advanced disease and distant metastasis, and smaller proportion of familial history of retinoblastoma. Advanced disease at diagnosis was more common in LMICs even after adjusting for age (odds ratio for low-income countries vs upper-middle-income countries and HICs, 17.92 95% CI, 12.94-24.80, and for lower-middle-income countries vs upper-middle-income countries and HICs, 5.74 95% CI, 4.30-7.68). Conclusions and Relevance: This study is estimated to have included more than half of all new retinoblastoma cases worldwide in 2017. Children from LMICs, where the main global retinoblastoma burden lies, presented at an older age with more advanced disease and demonstrated a smaller proportion of familial history of retinoblastoma, likely because many do not reach a childbearing age. Given that retinoblastoma is curable, these data are concerning and mandate intervention at national and international levels. Further studies are needed to investigate factors, other than age at presentation, that may be associated with advanced disease in LMICs. © 2020 American Medical Association. All rights reserved