Modeling the pharmacodynamics of passive membrane permeability

Small molecule permeability through cellular membranes is critical to a better understanding of pharmacodynamics and the drug discovery endeavor. Such permeability may be estimated as a function of the free energy change of barrier crossing by invoking the barrier domain model, which posits that permeation is limited by passage through a single “barrier domain” and assumes diffusivity differences among compounds of similar structure are negligible. Inspired by the work of Rezai and co-workers (JACS 128:14073–14080, 2006), we estimate this free energy change as the difference in implicit solvation free energies in chloroform and water, but extend their model to include solute conformational affects. Using a set of eleven structurally diverse FDA approved compounds and a set of thirteen congeneric molecules, we show that the solvation free energies are dominated by the global minima, which allows solute conformational distributions to be effectively neglected. For the set of tested compounds, the best correlation with experiment is obtained when the implicit chloroform global minimum is used to evaluate the solvation free energy difference

Automated Potentiometric Titrations in KCl/Water-Saturated Octanol: Method for Quantifying Factors Influencing Ion-Pair Partitioning

The knowledge base of factors influencing ion pair partitioning is very sparse, primarily because of the difficulty in determining accurate log PI values of desirable low molecular weight (MW) reference compounds. We have developed a potentiometric titration procedure in KCl/water-saturated octanol that provides a link to log PI through the thermodynamic cycle of ionization and partitioning. These titrations have the advantage of being independent of the magnitude of log P, while maintaining a reproducibility of a few hundredths of a log P in the calculated difference between log P neutral and log P ion pair (diff (log PN − I)). Simple model compounds can be used. The titration procedure is described in detail, along with a program for calculating pKa′′ values incorporating the ionization of water in octanol. Hydrogen bonding and steric factors have a greater influence on ion pairs than they do on neutral species, yet these factors are missing from current programs used to calculate log PI and log D. In contrast to the common assumption that diff (log PN − I) is the same for all amines, they can actually vary more than 3 log units, as in our examples. A major factor affecting log PI is the ability of water and the counterion to approach the charge center. Bulky substituents near the charge center have a negative influence on log PI. On the other hand, hydrogen bonding groups near the charge center have the opposite effect by lowering the free energy of the ion pair. The use of this titration method to determine substituent ion pair stabilization values (IPS) should bring about more accurate log D calculations and encourage species-specific QSAR involving log DN and log DI. This work also brings attention to the fascinating world of nature’s highly stabilized ion pairs

Influence of LAR and VAR on Para-Aminopyridine Antimalarials Targetting Haematin in Chloroquine-Resistance

Antimalarial chloroquine (CQ) prevents haematin detoxication when CQ-base concentrates in the acidic digestive vacuole through protonation of its p-aminopyridine (pAP) basic aro- matic nitrogen and sidechain diethyl-N. CQ export through the variant vacuolar membrane export channel, PFCRT, causes CQ-resistance in Plasmodium falciparum but 3-methyl CQ (sontochin SC), des-ethyl amodiaquine (DAQ) and bis 4-aminoquinoline piperaquine (PQ) are still active. This is determined by changes in drug accumulation ratios in parasite lipid (LAR) and in vacuolar water (VAR). Higher LAR may facilitate drug binding to and blocking PFCRT and also aid haematin in lipid to bind drug. LAR for CQ is only 8.3; VAR is 143,482. More hydrophobic SC has LAR 143; VAR remains 68,523. Similarly DAQ with a phenol sub- stituent has LAR of 40.8, with VAR 89,366. In PQ, basicity of each pAP is reduced by distal piperazine N, allowing very high LAR of 973,492, retaining VAR of 104,378. In another bis quinoline, dichlorquinazine (DCQ), also active but clinically unsatisfactory, each pAP retains basicity, being insulated by a 2-carbon chain from a proximal nitrogen of the single linking piperazine. While LAR of 15,488 is still high, the lowest estimate of VAR approaches 4.9 million. DCQ may be expected to be very highly lysosomotropic and therefore potentially hepatotoxic. In 11 pAP antimalarials a quadratic relationship between logLAR and logRe- sistance Index (RI) was confirmed, while log (LAR/VAR) vs logRI for 12 was linear. Both might be used to predict the utility of structural modifications

Clofazimine acid-base solubilization: influence of small organic acids’ concentration

Methods for drug solubilization have become important part of modern drug discovery and development due to increasing number of extremely insoluble drugs and drug candidates. One of such methods is acid-base supersolubilization (ABS) [1]. Clofazimine (CFZ) is weakly basic antibiotic and anti-inflammatory drug, most notably used in the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis, with recently proven inhibitory activity against several coronaviruses [2]. We have recently unraveled its aqueous pKa value and its unique cosolvent dependence [3]. The aim of the present study was to investigate CFZ solubilization using the ABS approach. Eight small organic acids were tested for the ABS effect (glutaric, malic, tartaric, citric, malonic, maleic, succinic, adipic) but only glutaric (GA), malic (MA), and tartaric (TA) acids showed some solubilization effect. The effect of their concentration (and the solution pH value) was further tested. The solubility of CFZ was determined in GA, MA, and TA solutions in wide concentration (1.0×10-2 – 5.0 M) and pH range (~0.2 – 4.8). Equilibration time was 24 hours (6 h of stirring + 18 h of sedimentation). Phases were separated by filtration. The CFZ concentration in supernatant was determined by HPLC-UV/VIS. Results show that CFZ solubility increases as acid concentration increases: from 3.04×10-3 to 10.68 mg/mL (in GA), from 9.06×10-3 to 1.23 mg/mL (in MA) and from 4.76×10-3 to 0.32 mg/mL (in TA). The effect of CFZ solubilization is much more pronounced when the acid concentration is raised above 2 M. These results can be used as the basis for further CFZ formulation optimization. Furthermore, our ongoing research is focused on the type of interactions and other possible factors that can influence CFZ and other prectically insoluble drugs, embracing (super)solubilization as a general methodology in drug design and development

Clofazimine acid-base solubilization: influence of small organic acids’ concentration

Methods for drug solubilization have become important part of modern drug discovery and development due to increasing number of extremely insoluble drugs and drug candidates. One of such methods is acid-base supersolubilization (ABS) [1]. Clofazimine (CFZ) is weakly basic antibiotic and anti-inflammatory drug, most notably used in the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis, with recently proven inhibitory activity against several coronaviruses [2]. We have recently unraveled its aqueous pKa value and its unique cosolvent dependence [3]. The aim of the present study was to investigate CFZ solubilization using the ABS approach. Eight small organic acids were tested for the ABS effect (glutaric, malic, tartaric, citric, malonic, maleic, succinic, adipic) but only glutaric (GA), malic (MA), and tartaric (TA) acids showed some solubilization effect. The effect of their concentration (and the solution pH value) was further tested. The solubility of CFZ was determined in GA, MA, and TA solutions in wide concentration (1.0×10-2 – 5.0 M) and pH range (~0.2 – 4.8). Equilibration time was 24 hours (6 h of stirring + 18 h of sedimentation). Phases were separated by filtration. The CFZ concentration in supernatant was determined by HPLC-UV/VIS. Results show that CFZ solubility increases as acid concentration increases: from 3.04×10-3 to 10.68 mg/mL (in GA), from 9.06×10-3 to 1.23 mg/mL (in MA) and from 4.76×10-3 to 0.32 mg/mL (in TA). The effect of CFZ solubilization is much more pronounced when the acid concentration is raised above 2 M. These results can be used as the basis for further CFZ formulation optimization. Furthermore, our ongoing research is focused on the type of interactions and other possible factors that can influence CFZ and other prectically insoluble drugs, embracing (super)solu bilization as a general methodology in drug design and development

Revealing the story of an orphan drug: clofazimine speciation and solubilization as a function of pH

Since the introduction of combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening in drug discovery in the early 1990s, the solubility of new chemical entities (NCE) decreased drastically while their lipophilicities increased greatly. Characterizing physicochemical properties of low soluble molecules can be especially challenging, since such molecules can undergo complicated reactions in aqueous solution, such as forming precipitates or complexes with buffer species or undergoing self-aggregation (dimer, trimer, etc.) or micelle formations. Most drugs are ionizable. Foremost to the rational interpretation of solution behavior of ionizable drugs in a physiologically-relevant pH domain requires an accurate aqueous pKa, determined by a suitable method. In a pH-dependent measurement of a property (e.g. solubility-, lipophilicity-, permeability-pH), when the apparent pKa value is different from the true aqueous pKa value, it may be an early clue that nonideal solution behavior may be taking place. In pharmaceutical research, it may seem cost-effective to use calculated pKa instead of measured values, but paradoxically, such preference can lead to inaccurate rationalization of the pH-dependent behavior of the drug molecule. For simple molecules, calculated values can be useful, but for today’s new drugs or for molecules prone to complicated solution behavior, the use of calculated pKas can substantially wrench the interpretation of solution properties. Clofazimine (CFZ), although discovered about 66 years ago, and used therapeutically for nearly 40 years, exhibits some of the properties of relatively recent drug molecules by being extremely water insoluble and having variable pKa values reported. We have recently combined potentiometric titrations and UV/Vis spectrophotometry in methanol-water cosolvent media, accompanied by DFT calculations, to assess the hypothesis of CFZ free base dimerization. We reasoned that a soluble dimer might form from drug-drug adhesion along the hydrophobic molecular surface. With lessened exposure of the hydrophobic surface to water, the dimer would be more water soluble than the monomeric free base. In saturated solutions, the apparent solubility in alkaline pH would be elevated due to the presence of the dimer. The effect of that would be a lower pKa and reverse pKa cosolvent dependence – the behaviour we have noticed in CFZ aqueous solutions. These findings are of paramount importance for understanding of CFZ speciation and the future progress in developing its improved formulations which is the subject of our ongoing studies

Time-dependent integrity during storage of natural surface water samples for the trace analysis of pharmaceutical products, feminizing hormones and pesticides

Monitoring and analysis of trace contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides require the preservation of the samples before they can be quantified using the appropriate analytical methods. Our objective is to determine the sample shelf life to insure proper quantification of ultratrace contaminants. To this end, we tested the stability of a variety of pharmaceutical products including caffeine, natural steroids, and selected pesticides under refrigerated storage conditions. The analysis was performed using multi-residue methods using an on-line solid-phase extraction combined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) in the selected reaction monitoring mode. After 21 days of storage, no significant difference in the recoveries was observed compared to day 0 for pharmaceutical products, while for pesticides, significant losses occurred for DIA and simazine after 10 days (14% and 17% reduction respectively) and a statistically significant decrease in the recovery was noted for cyanazine (78% disappearance). However, the estrogen and progestogen steroids were unstable during storage. The disappearance rates obtained after 21 days of storage vary from 63 to 72% for the feminizing hormones. Overall, pharmaceuticals and pesticides seem to be stable for refrigerated storage for up to about 10 days (except cyanazine) and steroidal hormones can be quite sensitive to degradation and should not be stored for more than a few days

Revealing the story of an orphan drug: clofazimine speciation and solubilization as a function of pH

Since the introduction of combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening in drug discovery in the early 1990s, the solubility of new chemical entities (NCE) decreased drastically while their lipophilicities increased greatly. Characterizing physicochemical properties of low soluble molecules can be especially challenging, since such molecules can undergo complicated reactions in aqueous solution, such as forming precipitates or complexes with buffer species or undergoing self-aggregation (dimer, trimer, etc.)1,2 or micelle formations. Most drugs are ionizable. Foremost to the rational interpretation of solution behavior of ionizable drugs in a physiologically-relevant pH domain requires an accurate aqueous pKa, determined by a suitable method. In a pH-dependent measurement of a property (e.g. solubility-, lipophilicity-, permeability-pH), when the apparent pKa value is different from the true aqueous pKa value, it may be an early clue that nonideal solution behavior may be taking place. In pharmaceutical research, it may seem cost-effective to use calculated pKa instead of measured values, but paradoxically, such preference can lead to inaccurate rationalization of the pH-dependent behavior of the drug molecule. For simple molecules, calculated values can be useful, but for today’s new drugs or for molecules prone to complicated solution behavior, the use of calculated pKas can substantially wrench the interpretation of solution properties. Clofazimine (CFZ), although discovered about 66 years ago, and used therapeutically for nearly 40 years, exhibits some of the properties of relatively recent drug molecules by being extremely water insoluble and having variable pKa values reported. We have recently combined potentiometric titrations and UV/Vis spectrophotometry in methanol-water cosolvent media, accompanied by DFT calculations, to assess the hypothesis of CFZ free base dimerization. We reasoned that a soluble dimer might form from drug-drug adhesion along the hydrophobic molecular surface. With lessened exposure of the hydrophobic surface to water, the dimer would be more water soluble than the monomeric free base. In saturated solutions, the apparent solubility in alkaline pH would be elevated due to the presence of the dimer. The effect of that would be a lower pKa and reverse pKa cosolvent dependence – the behaviour we have noticed in CFZ aqueous solutions. These findings are of paramount importance for understanding of CFZ speciation and the future progress in developing its improved formulations which is the subject of our ongoing studies

A comparison of drug transport in pulmonary absorption models: isolated perfused rat lungs, respiratory epithelial cell lines and primary cell culture

Purpose: To evaluate the ability of human airway epithelial cell layers and a simple rat isolated perfused lung (IPL) model to predict pulmonary drug absorption in rats in vivo. Method: The permeability of seven compounds selected to possess a range of lipophilicity was measured in two airway cell lines (Calu-3 and 16HBE14o-), in normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells and using a simple isolated perfused lungs (IPL) technique. Data from the cell layers and ex vivo lungs were compared to published absorption rates from rat lungs measured in vivo. Results: A strong relationship was observed between the logarithm of the in vivo absorption half-life and the absorption half-life in the IPL (r = 0.97; excluding formoterol). Good log-linear relationships were also found between the apparent first-order absorption rate in vivo and cell layer permeability with correlation coefficients of 0.92, 0.93, 0.91 in Calu-3, 16HBE14o- and NHBE cells, respectively. Conclusion: The simple IPL technique provided a good prediction of drug absorption from the lungs, making it a useful method for empirical screening of drug absorption in the lungs. Permeability measurements were similar in all the respiratory epithelial cell models evaluated, with Calu-3 having the advantage for routine permeability screening purposes of being readily availability, robust and easy to culture