A CLINICAL STUDY OF INHALANT ANAESTHESIA IN DOGS

A clinical trial was undertaken using three different inhalant anaesthetic agents and one intravenous anaesthetic agent in dogs undergoing routine desexing surgery. Healthy adult dogs undergoing either ovariohysterectomy or castration were assessed as to their demeanour, with the more excitable dogs being placed in groups receiving premedication with acepromazine and morphine. All dogs were then randomly assigned an anaesthetic agent for induction of general anaesthesia. The agents were the inhalants halothane, isoflurane and sevoflurane, and the intravenous agent propofol. Inhalant inductions were undertaken using a tight fitting mask attached to a standard anaesthetic machine with a rebreathing circuit, with the maximum dose of inhalant available from a standard vaporiser. Propofol inductions were undertaken via intravenous catheter. Dogs induced with propofol were randomly assigned one of the three inhalant agents for maintenance. Those induced by inhalant agent were maintained using the same agent. The surgical procedure was undertaken in standard fashion, as was recovery from anaesthesia. All dogs received the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent meloxicam. Data collection was divided into three stages: induction, maintenance, and recovery from anaesthesia. Variables measured at induction of anaesthesia were time to intubation, number of intubation attempts, tolerance of mask, quality of induction and quality of transfer to the maintenance stage. Standard variables for monitoring of anaesthesia were recorded throughout the maintenance of anaesthesia. Variables measured at recovery were time to righting, time to standing and quality of recovery. The mean time to intubation when using the newer inhalant sevoflurane (196.2 ± 14.8sec, mean ± SE) was not significantly different to that for halothane (221.4 ± 14.0sec) or isoflurane (172.4 ± 15.0sec). Time to intubation with isoflurane was significantly faster than with halothane. Mean time to intubation with propofol (85.4 ± 7.7sec) was significantly faster than that for any of the three inhalants. Choice of inhalant had no effect on quality of induction. The use of premedication significantly improved the quality of induction. The use of propofol for induction likewise significantly improved the quality of induction. Standard cardiorespiratory variables measured during the maintenance phase of anaesthesia remained within normal clinical ranges for all three inhalants, and were therefore not further analysed. Choice of inhalant agent had no significant effect on the time to righting or standing in recovery. The use of propofol for induction had no effect on these variables. Animals placed in groups receiving premedication had significantly longer times to righting and standing. The oesophageal temperature at the end of the procedure had a significant effect on times to righting and standing, with lower temperatures contributing to slower recoveries. Independent of procedure time, male dogs had shorter times to righting than female dogs

Looking Beyond Fear and Extinction Learning: Considering Novel Treatment Targets for Anxiety

Fear conditioning studies provide valuable insight into how fears are learned and extinguished. Previous work focuses on fear and extinction learning to understand and treat anxiety disorders. However, a cascade of cognitive processes that extend beyond learning may also yield therapeutic targets for anxiety disorders. Throughout this review, we will discuss recent findings of fear generalization, memory consolidation, and reconsolidation. Factors related to effectiveness, efficiency and durability of extinction-based treatments will be addressed. Moreover, adolescence may be a key developmental stage when threat-related perturbations emerge; therefore, targeting interventions during adolescence when these nascent processes are more malleable may alter the trajectory of anxiety disorders