Cease agricultural activity forever? Underestimating the importance of symbolic capital

peer-reviewedSimilar to what is occurring on a global scale, Irish agriculture is populated by an older generation of farmers. Consequently, intergenerational family farm transfer is increasingly viewed as crucial to the survival, continuity and future sustainability of the family farm and agricultural sector. A review of existing research highlights how financial incentives that encourage succession and retirement from farming have stimulated little change in the behavioural intentions and attitudes amongst elderly farmers. Drawing on two previously disparate literature (transferring the family firm and transferring the family farm) and applying Pierre Bourdieu's concept of symbolic capital as a theoretical framework, this paper sets aside financial enticements and presents an insightful, nuanced analysis of the human factors that influence the process of transferring the family farm from the perspective of the senior generation. This research employs a multi-method triangulation design, consisting of self-administered questionnaires in conjunction with complimentary Problem-Centred Interviews, to acquire data on the complex psychodynamic and sociodynamic emotions involved in the process. The prominent themes to emerge from the empirical data are farmer's concerns regarding potential loss of identity, status and control upon transferring management and ownership of the family farm and retiring. Many older farmers appear to prioritise the building and maintenance of their personal accumulation of symbolic capital rather than ceasing agricultural activity. The paper concludes by suggesting that future policies and programmes encouraging family farm transfer must take into account the pervasiveness of symbolic capital and work within this structure to develop effective strategies that addresses the emotional well-being of elderly farmers.Funding for this project was provided by the National University of Ireland, Galway's College of Arts, Social Sciences, and Celtic Studies Galway Doctoral Research Scholarship Scheme and the Geographical Society of Ireland postgraduate travel award bursar

Atypical scrapie in sheep from a UK research flock which is free from classical scrapie

Background: In the wake of the epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy the British government established a flock of sheep from which scrapie-free animals are supplied to laboratories for research. Three breeds of sheep carrying a variety of different genotypes associated with scrapie susceptibility/resistance were imported in 1998 and 2001 from New Zealand, a country regarded as free from scrapie. They are kept in a purpose-built Sheep Unit under strict disease security and are monitored clinically and post mortem for evidence of scrapie. It is emphasised that atypical scrapie, as distinct from classical scrapie, has been recognised only relatively recently and differs from classical scrapie in its clinical, neuropathological and biochemical features. Most cases are detected in apparently healthy sheep by post mortem examination.Results: The occurrence of atypical scrapie in three sheep in (or derived from) the Sheep Unit is reported. Significant features of the affected sheep included their relatively high ages (6 y 1 mo, 7 y 9 mo, 9 y 7 mo respectively), their breed (all Cheviots) and their similar PRNP genotypes (AFRQ/AFRQ, AFRQ/ALRQ, and AFRQ/AFRQ, respectively). Two of the three sheep showed no clinical signs prior to death but all were confirmed as having atypical scrapie by immunohistochemistry and Western immunoblotting. Results of epidemiological investigations are presented and possible aetiologies of the cases are discussed.Conclusion: By process of exclusion, a likely explanation for the three cases of atypical scrapie is that they arose spontaneously and were not infected from an exterior source. If correct, this raises challenging issues for countries which are currently regarded as free from scrapie. It would mean that atypical scrapie is liable to occur in flocks worldwide, especially in older sheep of susceptible genotypes. To state confidently that both the classical and atypical forms of scrapie are absent from a population it is necessary for active surveillance to have taken place

Evaluation of the controls affecting the quality of spatial data derived from historical aerial photographs

This paper is concerned with the fundamental controls affecting the quality of data derived from historical aerial photographs typically used in geomorphological studies. A short review is provided of error sources introduced into the photogrammetric workflow. Data-sets from two case-studies provided a variety of source data and hence a good opportunity to evaluate the influence of the quality of archival material on the accuracy of coordinated points. Based on the statistical weights assigned to the measurements, precision of the data was estimated a priori, while residuals of independent checkpoints provided an a posteriori measure of data accuracy. Systematic discrepancies between the two values indicated that the routinely used stochastic model was incorrect and overoptimistic. Optimized weighting factors appeared significantly larger than previously used (and accepted) values. A test of repeat measurements explained the large uncertainties associated with the use of natural objects for ground control. This showed that the random errors not only appeared to be much larger than values accepted for appropriately controlled and targeted photogrammetric networks, but also small undetected gross errors were induced through the ‘misidentification’ of points. It is suggested that the effects of such ‘misidentifications’ should be reflected in the stochastic model through selection of more realistic weighting factors of both image and ground measurements. Using the optimized weighting factors, the accuracy of derived data can now be more truly estimated, allowing the suitability of the imagery to be judged before purchase and processing

Contact structures in the poultry industry in Great Britain: Exploring transmission routes for a potential avian influenza virus epidemic

Background: The commercial poultry industry in United Kingdom (UK) is worth an estimated £3.4 billion at retail value, producing over 174 million birds for consumption per year. An epidemic of any poultry disease with high mortality or which is zoonotic, such as avian influenza virus (AIV), would result in the culling of significant numbers of birds, as seen in the Netherlands in 2003 and Italy in 2000. Such an epidemic would cost the UK government millions of pounds in compensation costs, with further economic losses through reduction of international and UK consumption of British poultry. In order to better inform policy advisers and makers on the potential for a large epidemic in GB, we investigate the role that interactions amongst premises within the British commercial poultry industry could play in promoting an AIV epidemic, given an introduction of the virus in a specific part of poultry industry in Great Britain (GB). Results: Poultry premises using multiple slaughterhouses lead to a large number of premises being potentially connected, with the resultant potential for large and sometimes widespread epidemics. Catching companies can also potentially link a large proportion of the poultry population. Critical to this is the maximum distance traveled by catching companies between premises and whether or not between-species transmission could occur within individual premises. Premises closely linked by proximity may result in connections being formed between different species and or sectors within the industry. Conclusion: Even quite well-contained epidemics have the potential for geographically widespread dissemination, potentially resulting in severe logistical problems for epidemic control, and with economic impact on a large part of the country. Premises sending birds to multiple slaughterhouses or housing multiple species may act as a bridge between otherwise separate sectors of the industry, resulting in the potential for large epidemics. Investment into further data collection and analyses on the importance of industry structure as a determinant for spread of AIV would enable us to use the results from this study to contribute to policy on disease control

Modelling the hydrological impacts of climate change on UK lowland wet grassland

Hydrological impacts of climate change upon the Elmley Marshes, southeast England, are simulated using a coupled hydrological/hydraulic model developed using MIKE SHE/MIKE 11 and calibrated to contemporary conditions. Predicted changes in precipitation, temperature, radiation and wind speed from the UK Climate Impacts Programme associated with four emissions scenarios for the 2050s are used to modify precipitation and potential evapotranspiration data. For each emissions scenario two sets of potential evapotranspiration data are derived, one using changes in temperature (PETtemp), the other incorporating changes in temperature, radiation and wind speed (PETtrws). Results indicate drier conditions through the progressively higher emissions scenarios when compared to contemporary conditions. Changes are particularly pronounced when using PETtrws. Summer water tables are lower (PETtemp 0.01�0.08 m; PETtrws 0.07�0.27 m) and the duration of high winter water tables is reduced. Although water tables still intercept the surface in winter when using PETtemp, this ceases when PETtrws is employed. Summer ditch water levels for the PETtemp scenarios are lower (0.01�0.21 m) and in dry winters they do not reach mean field level. Under the PETtrws scenarios summer and winter ditch water levels are lower by on average 0.21 and 0.30 m, respectively. Levels never reach the elevation of the marsh surface. Lower groundwater and ditch water levels result in declines in the magnitude and duration of surface inundation which is virtually eliminated with the PETtrws scenarios. The changes in hydrological conditions simulated by the model are of sufficiently fine resolution to infer ecological impacts which are likely to include the loss of some grassland species adapted to high water tables. Reductions in the extent of surface water in spring, especially for the PETtrws scenarios, are likely to reduce suitability for wading birds including lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and redshank (Tringa totanus) for which the marshes are internationally renowned

A mycotoxin-deactivating feed additive counteracts the adverse effects of regular levels of Fusarium mycotoxins in dairy cows.

Little is known about the effects of commonly found levels of Fusarium mycotoxins on the performance, metabolism, and immunity of dairy cattle. We investigated the effects of regular contamination levels, meaning contamination levels that can be commonly detected in dairy feeds, of deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB) in total mixed ration (TMR) on the performance, diet digestibility, milk quality, and plasma liver enzymes in dairy cows. This trial examined 12 lactating Holstein dairy cows using a 3-period × 3-treatment Latin square design. The experimental period was 21 d of mycotoxin exposure followed by 14 d of washout. During treatment periods, cows received one of 3 diets: (1) CTR (control) diet of TMR contaminated with 340.5 µg of DON/kg of dry matter (DM) and 127.9 µg FB/kg of DM; (2) MTX diet of TMR contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins at levels higher than CTR but below US and European Union guidelines (i.e., 733.0 µg of DON/kg of DM and 994.4 µg of FB/kg of DM); or (3) MDP diet, which was MTX diet supplemented with a mycotoxin deactivator product (i.e., 897.3 µg of DON/kg of DM and 1,247.1 µg of FB/kg of DM; Mycofix, 35 g/animal per day). During washout, all animals were fed the same CTR diet. Body weight, body condition score, DM intake, dietary nutrient digestibility, milk production, milk composition and rennet coagulation properties, somatic cell count, blood serum chemistry, hematology, serum immunoglobulin concentrations, and expression of multiple genes in circulating leucocytes were measured. Milk production was significantly greater in the CTR group (37.73 kg/d) than in the MTX (36.39 kg/d) and the MDP (36.55 kg/d) groups. Curd firmness and curd firming time were negatively affected by the MTX diet compared with the other 2 diets. Furthermore, DM and neutral detergent fiber digestibility were lower after the MTX diet than after the CTR diet (67.3 vs. 71.0% and 42.8 vs. 52.3%). The MDP diet had the highest digestibility coefficients for DM (72.4%) and neutral detergent fiber (53.6%) compared with the other 2 diets. The activities of plasma liver transaminases were higher after the MTX diet than after the CTR and MDP diets. Compared with the CTR diet, the MTX diet led to slightly lower expression of genes related to immune and inflammatory functions, indicating that Fusarium mycotoxins had an immunosuppressive effect. Our results indicated that feed contaminated with regular levels of Fusarium mycotoxins adversely affected the performance, milk quality, diet digestibility, metabolic variables, and immunity of dairy cows, and that supplementation with mycotoxin deactivator product counteracted most of these negative effects

Skydd mot nitrat och bekämpningsmedel i dricksvatten : åtgärder och styrmedel i fem länder

In many European countries there is an increasing concern about the occasionally high concentrations of nitrate and pesticides in drinking water. The advent of the EU Water Framework Directive particularly highlights this. The directive states that all large drinking water sources should be identified and protected from pollution before 2009 and that by 2015 all water bodies should reach a 'good status'. In Sweden about 60 percent of the drinking water sources have protection areas. This means that about 700 new water protection areas need to be designated before 2009. This will affect many farmers, restricting their farming practices. The purpose of this study was to investigate which methods are used in other countries concerning nitrate and pesticide pollution from agriculture. From this, the expectation was to generate ideas on what could be undertaken in Sweden when designating new protection areas. Countries included in the study were Denmark, Finland, Germany, the United Kingdom and the northeast part of the USA. Denmark and Finland were dealt with as whole nations, whereas in Germany, United Kingdom and USA the focus was on individual states or regions. (Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany, England and Wales in the UK and the Mid-Atlantic region in the USA.) Information has been collected from literature, Internet and through contacts with authorities, companies and organisations in the different countries. The results indicate that measures to reduce nitrate and pesticide pollution from agriculture are similar, while the method of implementing these measures differs from one country to another. A list of common measures can be seen in table 1. Nearly all of the measures are also used in Sweden. Still, there are many methods of implementing that are worth considering as alternatives to these used in Sweden. For example, in some of the countries studied, the farmers' right to compensation is stronger than in Sweden. There are also many examples of co-operations between agriculture and water suppliers and in some countries voluntary action programmes play a more important part compared to Sweden. All five countries have some type of statutory water protection areas. In Germany cooperative agreements between farmers and water suppliers are quite common. Lower Saxony has a co-operation model where water suppliers, authorities and land users work together to deal with drinking water protection on a local scale. The regional authorities in Denmark are currently working on action plans for all large drinking water supplies. Measures in these action plans should preferably be carried out on a voluntary basis such as through co-operative agreements between farmers and water suppliers. In Finland, restrictions in ground water protection areas are not mandatory and there is not much focus on agriculture since it is not considered a major source of pollution. Most farms in Finland are involved in some of the agri-environmental schemes and this, together with legislation, is considered enough for protecting water supplies. In England, statutory water protection areas have only been used once. Instead the Environmental Agency has designated non-regulatory protection areas for groundwater sources. Often voluntary action programs are preferred to legislation and there are many such programs and agri-environmental schemes directed at the protection of natural resources in England. In the USA, each state is responsible for completing assessments for public water systems. This is comparable to the work undertaken by the EU Water Framework Directive. Action programs for source water protection are not statutory, but are strongly encouraged by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Extension services, agri-environmental schemes and Best Management Practices are important measures in reducing the impact of nitrate and pesticides from agriculture to water sources. Cooperations within watersheds between agriculture, authorities, water suppliers and different organisations have been successful and will probably be used more frequently in the future.Många länder i Europa har problem med för höga halter av nitrat och bekämpningsmedel i dricksvatten. Frågan är speciellt aktuell i och med införandet av EU:s ramdirektiv för vatten. I Sverige saknar många dricksvattentäkter skydd och före år 2009 ska cirka 700 nya vattenskyddsområden ha inrättats för att uppfylla direktivet. Detta kommer att påverka många jordbrukare vars odlingsmöjligheter begränsas. Syftet med detta arbete har varit att kartlägga vilka metoder som används för att skydda dricksvatten mot förorening av nitrat och bekämpningsmedel från jordbruket i andra länder, samt att från detta få idéer om vad som kan göras i Sverige vid införandet av nya vattenskyddsområden. De länder som ingick i studien var Danmark, Finland, Tyskland, Storbritannien, samt nordöstra USA. Arbetet har genomförts genom litteraturstudier, Internetsökningar och kontakt med olika myndigheter, företag och organisationer i respektive land. Resultatet av sammanställningen visar att åtgärder för att minska jordbrukets påverkan på dricksvattenkvaliteten oftast är desamma, medan sätten att genomföra åtgärderna på skiljer sig åt mellan de olika länderna. De flesta åtgärder och även många styrmedel används också i Sverige. Andra styrmedel skulle kunna anpassas till svenska förhållanden. I några länder är markägares rätt till ersättning starkare än i Sverige. Det finns också många exempel på samarbeten mellan vattenverk eller myndigheter och lantbruket, samt länder där frivilliga åtgärdsprogram har stor betydelse. Detta är metoder som skulle kunna användas i större omfattning även i Sverige