Beyond the target area: an integrative view of tDCS-induced motor cortex modulation in patients and athletes

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive technique used to modulate neural tissue. Neuromodulation apparently improves cognitive functions in several neurologic diseases treatment and sports performance. In this study, we present a comprehensive, integrative review of tDCS for motor rehabilitation and motor learning in healthy individuals, athletes and multiple neurologic and neuropsychiatric conditions. We also report on neuromodulation mechanisms, main applications, current knowledge including areas such as language, embodied cognition, functional and social aspects, and future directions. We present the use and perspectives of new developments in tDCS technology, namely high-definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) which promises to overcome one of the main tDCS limitation (i.e., low focality) and its application for neurological disease, pain relief, and motor learning/rehabilitation. Finally, we provided information regarding the Transcutaneous Spinal Direct Current Stimulation (tsDCS) in clinical applications, Cerebellar tDCS (ctDCS) and its influence on motor learning, and TMS combined with electroencephalography (EEG) as a tool to evaluate tDCS effects on brain function

Training Level Does Not Influence The Rating Of Perceived Exertion During An Incremental Test [o Nível De Treinamento Não Influencia A Percepção Subjetiva De Esforço Durante Um Teste Incremental]

Different training levels, combined with experience in performing exhaustive exercise, may produce different sensations of fatigue. The objective of this study was to compare the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) between cyclists and non-cyclists during a maximal incremental test (ITMAX). Twenty-three subjects were recruited and divided into a cyclist group (CG) (n = 12; age: 26.5 ± 4.7 years, body weight: 68.2 ± 11kg, height: 176 ± 8.6 cm) and a non-cyclist group (NCG) (n = 11; 25.2 ± 4.0 years, body weight: 72.9 ± 9 kg, height: 175.1 ± 6.3 cm). All subjects performed an ITMAX until exhaustion on a cycling simulator, starting at 0 W and with increments of 20 W.min-1. RPE was measured at 30-second intervals during ITMAX and the maximal power output (PMAX) of each subject was also recorded. The total time of each test was normalized to the percentage of completed trial (10% to 100%, intervals of 10%), and the corresponding RPE was recorded. PMAX was 368 ± 12.7 W and 256 ± 11.2 W for CG and NCG, respectively (P < 0.01). No significant difference in median RPE was observed between groups at any time point. In conclusion, RPE responses did not differ between CG and NCG during ITMAX, suggesting that training level does not influence RPE.123159163Borg, E., Kaijser, L., A Comparison Between Three Rating Scales for Perceived Exertion and Two Different Work Tests (2006) Scand J Med Sci Sports, 16 (1), pp. 57-69Hummel, A., Läubli, T., Pozzo, M., Schenk, P., Spillmann, S., Klipstein, A., Relationship Between Perceived Exertion and Mean Power Frequency of the EMG Signal from the Upper Trapezius Muscle During Isometric Shoulder Elevation (2005) Eur J Appl Physiol, 95 (4), pp. 312-326(2005) Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, , American College of Sports Medicine., 7th edn. Williams and Watkins Lippincott, BaltimoreNakamura, F.Y., Gancedo, M.R., da silva, L.A., Lima, J.R.P., Kokubun, E., Utilização do esforço percebido na determinação da velocidade crítica em corrida aquática (2005) Rev Bras Med Esporte, 11 (1), pp. 1-5Borg, G., Borg's Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales (1998) Human Kinetics, , Champaign, ILChen, M.J., Fan, X., Moe, S.T., Criterion-Related Validity of the Borg Ratings of Perceived Exertion Scale in Healthy Individuals: A Meta-Analysis (2002) J Sports Sci, 20 (11), pp. 873-899Eston, R.G., Faulkner, J.A., Mason, E.A., Parfitt, G., The Validity of Predicting Maximal Oxygen Uptake from Perceptually Regulated Graded Exercise Tests of Different Durations (2006) Eur J Appl Physiol, 97 (5), pp. 535-541Baden, D.A., McLean, T.L., Tucker, R., Noakes, T.D., St Clair Gibson, A., Effect of Anticipation During Unknown or Unexpected Exercise Duration on Rating of Perceived Exertion, Affect, and Physiological Function (2005) Br J Sports Med, 39 (10), pp. 742-746Lagally, K.M., Robertson, R.J., Gallagher, K.I., Goss, F.L., Jakicic, J.M., Lephart, S.M., Perceived Exertion. Electromyography, and Blood Lactate During Acute Bouts of Resistance Exercise (2002) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34 (3), pp. 552-559Hampson, D.B., St Clair Gibson, A., Lambert, M.I., Noakes, T.D., The Influence of Sensory Cues on the Perception of Exertion During Exercise and Central Regulation of Exercise Performance (2001) Sports Med, 31 (13), pp. 935-952St Clair Gibson, A., Baden, D.A., Lambert, M.I., Lambert, E.V., Harley, Y.X.R., Hampson, D., The Conscious Perception of the Sensation of Fatigue (2003) Sports Med, 33 (3), pp. 167-176Crewe, H., Tucker, R., Noakes, T.D., The Rate of Increase in Rating of Perceived Exertion Predicts the Duration of Exercise to Fatigue at a Fixed Power Output in Different Environmental Conditions (2008) Eur J Appl Physiol, 103 (5), pp. 569-577St Clair Gibson, A., Noakes, T.D., Evidence for Complex System Integration and Dynamic Neural Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Recruitment During Exercise in Humans (2004) Br J Sports Med, 38 (6), pp. 797-806Groslambert, A., Mahon, A.D., Perceived Exertion-Influence of Age and Cognitive Development (2006) Sports Med, 36 (11), pp. 911-928Faulkner, J., Eston, R., Overall and Peripheral Ratings of Perceived Exertion During a Graded Exercise Test to Volitional Exhaustion in Individuals of High and Low Fitness (2007) Eur J Appl Physiol, 101 (5), pp. 613-620Green, J.M., Pritchett, R.C., McLester, J.R., Crews, T.R., Tucker, D.C., Influence of Aerobic Fitness on Ratings of Perceived Exertion During Graded and Extended Duration Cycling (2007) J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 47 (1), pp. 33-39Boutcher, S.H., Seip, R.L., Hetzler, R.K., Pierce, E.F., Snead, D., Weltman, A., The Effects of Specificity of Traning on Rating of Perceived Exertion at the Lactate Threshold (1989) Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 59 (5), pp. 365-369Felts, W.M., Crouse, S., Brunetz, M., Influence of Aerobic Fitness on Ratings of Perceived Exertion During Light to Moderate Exercise (1988) Percept Mot Skills, 67 (2), pp. 671-676Hill, D.W., Cureton, K.J., Grisham, S.C., Collins, M.A., Effect of Training on the Rating of Perceived Exertion at the Ventilatory Threshold (1987) Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 56 (2), pp. 206-211Travlos, A.K., Marisi, D.Q., Perceived Exertion During Physical Exercise Among Individuals High and Low in Fitness (1996) Percept Mot Skills, 82 (2), pp. 419-424Noakes, T.D., Tucker, R., Do We Really Need a Central Governor to Explain Brain Regulation of Exercise Performance? A Response to the Letter of Dr. Marcora (2008) Eur J Appl Physiol, , DOI 10.1007/s00421-008-0842-3Kaufman, C., Berg, K., Noble, J., Thomas, J., Ratings of Perceived Exertion of ACSM Exercise Guidelines in Individuals Varying in Aerobic Fitness (2006) Res Q for Exerc and Sport, 77 (1), pp. 122-130Hassmen, P., Perceptual and Physiological Responses to Cycling and Running in Groups of Trained and Untrained Subjects (1990) Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Phyiol, 60 (6), pp. 445-451Noakes, T.D., Linear Relationship Between the Perception of Effort and the Duration of Constant Load Exercise That Remains (2004) J Appl Physiol, 96 (4), pp. 1571-1572Marcora, S., Perception of effort during exercise is independent of afferent feedback from skeletal muscles, heart and lungs (2009) J Appl Physiol, 106 (6), pp. 2060-206

Does Prefrontal Cortex Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Influence The Oxygen Uptake At Rest And Post-exercise?

The study evaluated the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied over prefrontal cortex on the oxygen uptake (V̇ O 2) at rest and during post-exercise recovery. The V̇ O 2 was assessed in eleven healthy subjects before, during tDCS (sham or anodal tDCS, 2 mA, 20 min), and 30-min following isocaloric aerobic exercise (~200 kcal). During tDCS, no changes were observed on V̇ O2 compared to baseline (P=0.95) and sham condition (P=0.85). The association between isocaloric exercise and anodal tDCS increased the V̇ O2 throughout 30-min recovery compared to sham condition (P<0.001). Therefore, the energy expenditure within the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) period, after anodal tDCS was approximately 19% higher compared to the sham condition (P<0.05). 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Erratum To Does Prefrontal Cortex Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Influence The Oxygen Uptake At Rest And Post-exercise? (int J Sports Med, (2013), 10.1055/s-0033-1333769)

[No abstract available

Using Weights In Abdominal Exercises: Electromyography Response Of The Rectus Abdominis And Rectus Femoris Muscles

Among persons who do regular exercises, many include abdominal exercises in their customary routine. For this, there are a growing variety of movements being created for strengthening the abdominal muscles. This work aims to know, through electromyography analysis, the action potencies of the supra and infra umbilical of the rectus abdominis and rectus femoris muscles during the execution of abdominal exercises with and without the addition of weights. Lying on the backside, seven flexing movements of the trunk - one without weight, three with 2 Kg on the neck, elbow and chest and three with 4 Kg on the same points - were executed. Nine female university students between 18 and 23 years old participated in the study. Surface electrodes were fixed to the supra and infra umbilical areas of the rectus abdominis and rectus femoris muscles. The results showed that the utilization of weights in the abdominal exercises did not appear to be effective for the rectus abdominis muscle since greater action potencies were only verified in the rectus femoris muscle. We concluded that the differences observed in the RMS were not relevant to the point of indicating the utilization of weights to improve abdominal exercises because greater action potencies were only observed in the rectus femoris muscle.438487496Axler, C.T., McGill, S.M., Low back loads over a variety of abdominal exercises: Searching for the safest abdominal challenge (1997) Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise, pp. 804-811Bankoff, A.D.P., Furlani, J., Estudo eletromiográfico dos músculos Reto Abdominal e oblíquo externo em diversos exercícios na posição de decúbito dorsal (1986) Revista Brasileira de Ciências do Esporte, 7 (2), pp. 69-74Basmajian, J.V., (1976) Electrofisiologia de la Accion Muscular, , Buenos Aires: PanamericanaBeim, G.M., Giraldo, J.L., Pincivero, D.M., Borror, M.J., Fu, F.H., Abdominal strengthening exercises: A comparative EMG study (1997) Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 6 (1), pp. 11-20Brooks, D., Brooks, C.C., (1994) Mitos do Exercício Abdominal, (71). , SprintFlint, M.M., Abdominal muscle involvement during the performance of various forms of sit-up exercises (1965) American Journal of Physical Medicine, 44 (5), pp. 224-233Floyd, W.F., Silver, P.H.S., Electromyographic study of patterns of activity of the anterior abdominal wall muscles in man (1950) Journal of Anatomy, 84, pp. 132-145Guimarães, A.C.S., The contribution of the rectus femoris in twelve selected abdominal exercise: An electromyographic study (1991) The Journal of Sports and Physical Fitness, 31 (2), pp. 222-230Hamill, J., Knutzen, K.M., (1999) Bases Biomecânicas do Movimento Humano, , São Paulo: ManoleJuker, D., McGill, S., Kropf, P., Steffen, T., Quantitative intramuscular myoelectric activity of lumbar portions of psoas and the abdominal wall during a wide variety of tasks (1998) Medicine Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, p. 301Kendall, F.P., Mc Creary, E.K., (1990) Músculos - Provas e Funçẽes. 3ed, pp. 205-271. , São Paulo: ManoleMoraes, A.C., Bankoff, A.D., Análise eletromiográfica dos músculos Reto Abdominal e Oblíquo Externo, em crianças na faixa etária de 8 a 10 anos. Campinas (1993), Dissertação - Faculdade de Educação Física, UNICAMPPellegrinotti, I.L., Moreira, Z.W., Galdi, E.H.G., Electromyography analysis of the rectus abdominis and external oblique muscles of children 8 to 10 years old (1995) Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 35 (7), pp. 425-430Rasch, P.J., Burke, R.K., (1977) Cinesiologia e Anatomia Aplicada: A Ciência do Movimento Humano. 5ed, , Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara KooganSheffield, F.J., Major, M.C., Electromyography study of the abdominal muscles in walking and other movements (1962) American Journal of Physical Medicine, 41, pp. 142-147Shirado, O., Ito, T., Kaneda, K., Strax, T.E., Electromyographic analysis of four techniques for isometric trunk muscle exercises (1995) Archives Physiology Medical Rehabilitation, (76)Tyson, A.D., (1997) Abdominal Anatomy and Strength Assessment. Part 1. Strength and Conditioning, 19 (2), pp. 38-41Walters, C.E., Partridge, M.J., Electromyographic study of the differential action of the abdominal muscles during exercise (1957) American Journal of Physical Medicine, 36, pp. 259-268Wardem, S., Waswelner, H., Bennell, K., Comparison of abshaper and conventionally performed abdominal exercises using surface electromyography (1999) Medicine Science Sports and Exercise, 31 (11), pp. 1656-1664Whiting, W.C., Rugg, S., Coleman, A., Vincent, W.J., Muscle activity during sit-ups using abodminal exercises devices (1999) The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13 (4), pp. 339-34

Articulate Torque And Electromyographic Activity Of Biceps Femoris And Semitendinosus Muscles During Isokinetic Knee Flexion Movements In Soccer Athletes [torque Articular E Atividade Eletromiográfica Dos Músculos Bíceps Femoral E Semitendíneo Durante Movimentos Isocinéticos De Flexão Do Joelho Em Atletas De Futebol]

The objective of the present study was to analyze the articulate torque (TO) and the electromyographic activity (EMG) of soccer athlete's long head Biceps Femoris (BF) and Semitendinosus (ST) muscles during isokinetic knee flexion movements (concentric-CON and eccentric-ECC actions) at differing velocities, carried out in the ventral decubitus position. Fourteen soccer players aged 19 and 20 years old (71.2 ± 6.5 kg, 176.6 ± 6.4 cm) were enrolled from the Associação Atlética Ponte Preta under- 20 team. They followed a protocol specifying 5 repetitions of flexion (CON and ECC action) of the knee at three velocities (60, 180 and 300°/s) at random. The recovery interval between series adopted was 3 minutes. EMG Activity was recorded using surface electrodes and data were expressed in terms of root mean squares (RMS). Statistical analysis employed analysis of variance (Friedman test) for repeated measures followed by the Wilcoxon test when necessary, with the level of significance set at P<0.05. The highest TO figures were observed at 60°/s velocity in the CON phase. There was no significant variation in TO between different velocities in the ECC contraction. Moreover, the ECC phase had higher TO values, irrespective of velocity or repetitions. Some of the repetitions of the CON phase at 60°/s exhibited significant difference between the BF and ST muscles. However, in general, the RMS values were not significantly modified by variations in velocity or type of contraction in the BF and ST muscles. 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Reliability Of Vertical Jump And Triple Horizontal Jump Tests At Different Times Of The Training Season In Elite Basketball Players [reprodutibilidade Dos Testes De Salto Vertical E Salto Horizontal Triplo Consecutivo Em Diferentes Etapas Da Preparação De Basquetebolistas De Alto Rendimento]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability of vertical jump (VJ) test with countermovement and horizontal triple jump (HTJ), in elite male basketball players in two specific moments (T1) and (T2). Thirty-two athletes were submitted to three trials of each jump. The tests were performed at the end of the preparation phase for official competition for each evaluated team (T1) and at the end of the competition phase (T2) with an interval of 12-14 weeks between T1 and T2. The student-t test for paired samples was used to verify differences between the two measures obtained at the same moment (p 0.05) were found. High correlation coefficients were observed in T1 and T2, as well as high ICC values (VJ; T1 - 0.979 and HTJ; T1 = 0.89 and T2 = 0.97) and low CV values (VJ =1.88 and 1.55; HTJ = 2.44 and 1.34). The results of this study showed high reliability for VJ and HTJ. 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