The problem of the standards of Indian currency.

This study examines tree development of monetary management in India from 1873 to date, with special reference to the objectives or standards to which such management has tried to conform. During this period, economic opinion about monetary objectives has undergone revolutionary changes. During the first fifty years, the maintenance of a stable exchange rate through gold standard mechanism was the objective. During the nineteen, thirties, internal stability at a high level of economic activity and employment became the aim of currency management. In the present decade, the maintenance of a stable international currency relation and internal full employment are both retarded as objectives. The introductory chapter of this study reviews the development of this evolution. Monetary manages.ent is fundamentally an international activity, though different countries play unequal parts in it. The general course of management has been regulated, for all, by the major economies of the world, or, more correctly, by England before world War 1, and after it by England, U.S.A., Germany and France. The function of smaller countries has been one of adaptation. Monetary management in the major economies has thus automatically constituted the main part of the Monetary management in a minor economy like India. The indigenous aspect of indian currency management has seen the secondary function of adaptation to the international framework devised abroad. Consequently, an analysis of the international gold standard of the fifty years, and of the attempts of the Indian management to adjust its system to the international standard, constitutes the subject-matter of Chapters II and III. Chapter IV analyses the currency warfare of the thirties resulting from the efforts of the major economies to assume domestic currency autonomy, and its repercussions on Indian currency management. The last two chapters (V and VI) examine the problems of Indian currency management in the present decade, when the maintenance of an equilibrium exchange rate fixed by the international agreement embodied in the Bretton Woods system, and of internal full employment, should form the monetary objectives of India. The speciality of this study lies in as. international perspective of Indian currency management, in its attempts to locate India's real position in the international monetary set-up during the period under review and in its prescribing the external currency relation which India should maintain in the immediate future. The examination of the extent to which the internal monetary objective of full employment investment may be pursued in India, in this international set-up is another contribution of this enquiry

Time-stamping accuracy in virtualized environments

The swift acceptance and the widespread use of virtual environments has substantially increased the stress on networks as each of the operating systems running in parallel sends out packets over the same network. As an increased number of packets traverse a network, the importance to continuously monitor whether the network is providing satisfactory service has increased. The metrics for such analyses includes delay, jitter, packet loss and available path capacity. The basic parameter required to quantify these metrics is the timestamping values of the packets. The purpose of this research work is to characterize the impact of virtualization on a PC's time-stamping process. Operating system virtualization is employed where the time-stamping is done by the operating system kernel. CPU load and packet generating parameters are varied in order to study about the effect of virtualization on the time-stamping process under different operating conditions

Solid state thermomechanical engineering of high-quality pharmaceutical salts via solvent free continuous processing

Thermomechanical engineering of pharmaceutical salts in the solid state using continuous extrusion processing (ssTME) is a new novel manufacturing approach. In the present work, we introduce a paradigm for the synthesis of ketoconazole - oxalic acid and ciprofloxacin – maleic acid salts by imparting temperature, shear rate and stress in comparison to liquid assisted grinding (LAG) approach. We demonstrated that thermomechanical synthesis is advantageous by producing high quality and pure, solvent-free pharmaceutical salts by tailoring extrusion processing variables

Boomerang effects of gambling warnings exposed to non-problem gamblers

Gambling is the most popular form of entertainment in most markets where it is legal. Theindustry has embraced technology and is a growing category online and through mobileplatforms. Governments throughout the world worry about the product when gambling ismore widely available and more private to play. Warnings for problem gambling have longbeen used in land-based gambling venues but online gambling often does not have thisremedy. In addition, non-problem gamblers make up about 99% of gamblers but littleresearch has tested their reaction to warnings. An online casino was developed to testwarnings and found that a significant proportion of non-problem gamblers gambled morefrequently after exposure to the warnings. Because increased frequency of gambling is one symptom of problem gambling, the implications of these findings are discussed in terms of future remedies for consumers that have problems with gambling products

HEPATITIS C VIRUS GENOTYPING IN CHRONIC HEPATITIS C PATIENTS

Chronic hepatitis C virus infection is a massive worldwide healthcare burden with estimated costs in the USA alone of over $5 billon per annum. The virus has a 9.5kb positive sense single-stranded RNA genome with striking heterogeneity between isolates, which has led to it being divided into 6 genotypes and more than 50 subtypes and many quasispecies that has been arisen due to the infidelity of the viral polymerase, which lacks of a proofreading function. The virus exists as a range of related but not identical species at the quasispecies. In each infected individual, HCV circulates as a quasispecies in which the population consists of a number of closely related but distinct genetic species. The distribution of the genotype might be influenced by the mode of transmission and racial group. The only current effective treatment is combination therapy with pegylated interferon plus ribavirin (peg-IFNα + RBV) for 24–48 weeks based for genotypes 1 and 4 is 48 weeks, whereas the treatment for genotypes 2 and 3 is completed in 24 weeks. It has proved effective in up to 50% of those infected with HCV genotype 1 and 4 and it varies with other genotypes. HCV genotype is consider to be a clinically important parameter for determining both; the potential response and the duration of treatment.

Association between the number of coadministered P-glycoprotein inhibitors and serum digoxin levels in patients on therapeutic drug monitoring

BACKGROUND: The ABC transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is recognized as a site for drug-drug interactions and provides a mechanistic explanation for clinically relevant pharmacokinetic interactions with digoxin. The question of whether several P-gp inhibitors may have additive effects has not yet been addressed. METHODS: We evaluated the effects on serum concentrations of digoxin (S-digoxin) in 618 patients undergoing therapeutic drug monitoring. P-gp inhibitors were classified as Class I, with a known effect on digoxin kinetics, or Class II, showing inhibition in vitro but no documented effect on digoxin kinetics in humans. Mean S-digoxin values were compared between groups of patients with different numbers of coadministered P-gp inhibitors by a univariate and a multivariate model, including the potential covariates age, sex, digoxin dose and total number of prescribed drugs. RESULTS: A large proportion (47%) of the digoxin patients undergoing therapeutic drug monitoring had one or more P-gp inhibitor prescribed. In both univariate and multivariate analysis, S-digoxin increased in a stepwise fashion according to the number of coadministered P-gp inhibitors (all P values < 0.01 compared with no P-gp inhibitor). In multivariate analysis, S-digoxin levels were 1.26 ± 0.04, 1.51 ± 0.05, 1.59 ± 0.08 and 2.00 ± 0.25 nmol/L for zero, one, two and three P-gp inhibitors, respectively. The results were even more pronounced when we analyzed only Class I P-gp inhibitors (1.65 ± 0.07 for one and 1.83 ± 0.07 nmol/L for two). CONCLUSIONS: Polypharmacy may lead to multiple drug-drug interactions at the same site, in this case P-gp. The S-digoxin levels increased in a stepwise fashion with an increasing number of coadministered P-gp inhibitors in patients taking P-gp inhibitors and digoxin concomitantly. As coadministration of digoxin and P-gp inhibitors is common, it is important to increase awareness about P-gp interactions among prescribing clinicians

In Vivo Methods to Study Uptake of Nanoparticles into the Brain

Several in vivo techniques have been developed to study and measure the uptake of CNS compounds into the brain. With these techniques, various parameters can be determined after drug administration, including the blood-to-brain influx constant (Kin), the permeability-surface area (PS) product, and the brain uptake index (BUI). These techniques have been mostly used for drugs that are expected to enter the brain via transmembrane diffusion or by carrier-mediated transcytosis. Drugs that have limitations in entering the brain via such pathways have been encapsulated in nanoparticles (based on lipids or synthetic polymers) to enhance brain uptake. Nanoparticles are different from CNS compounds in size, composition and uptake mechanisms. This has led to different methods and approaches to study brain uptake in vivo. Here we discuss the techniques generally used to measure nanoparticle uptake in addition to the techniques used for CNS compounds. Techniques include visualization methods, behavioral tests, and quantitative methods

Dual Hypocretin Receptor Antagonism Is More Effective for Sleep Promotion than Antagonism of Either Receptor Alone

The hypocretin (orexin) system is involved in sleep/wake regulation, and antagonists of both hypocretin receptor type 1 (HCRTR1) and/or HCRTR2 are considered to be potential hypnotic medications. It is currently unclear whether blockade of either or both receptors is more effective for promoting sleep with minimal side effects. Accordingly, we compared the properties of selective HCRTR1 (SB-408124 and SB-334867) and HCRTR2 (EMPA) antagonists with that of the dual HCRTR1/R2 antagonist almorexant in the rat. All 4 antagonists bound to their respective receptors with high affinity and selectivity in vitro. Since in vivo pharmacokinetic experiments revealed poor brain penetration for SB-408124, SB-334867 was selected for subsequent in vivo studies. When injected in the mid-active phase, SB-334867 produced small increases in rapid-eye-movement (REM) and non-REM (NR) sleep. EMPA produced a significant increase in NR only at the highest dose studied. In contrast, almorexant decreased NR latency and increased both NR and REM proportionally throughout the subsequent 6 h without rebound wakefulness. The increased NR was due to a greater number of NR bouts; NR bout duration was unchanged. At the highest dose tested (100 mg/kg), almorexant fragmented sleep architecture by increasing the number of waking and REM bouts. No evidence of cataplexy was observed. HCRTR1 occupancy by almorexant declined 4–6 h post-administration while HCRTR2 occupancy was still elevated after 12 h, revealing a complex relationship between occupancy of HCRT receptors and sleep promotion. We conclude that dual HCRTR1/R2 blockade is more effective in promoting sleep than blockade of either HCRTR alone. In contrast to GABA receptor agonists which induce sleep by generalized inhibition, HCRTR antagonists seem to facilitate sleep by reducing waking “drive”