LA GUERRA CIVIL EN TOLEDO (1936-1939). UNA PROPUESTA METODOLÓGICA PARA SU ESTUDIO DESDE LA ARQUEOLOGÍA - THE CIVIL WAR IN TOLEDO (1936-1939). A METHODOLOGICAL PROPOSAL FOR THE STUDY FROM ARCHEOLOGY

En el presente estudio se aborda la problemática de la arqueología de la Guerra Civil en Toledo. La ingente bibliografía histórica se ha centrado prácticamente en exclusiva en el estudio del episodio del Alcázar, olvidando la constitución de un frente al Sur del río Tajo, uno de los más importantes de la contienda española. Los trabajos de prospección se han centrado en la documentación exhaustiva de este  Frente  Sur  del Tajo  como  una  sola  unidad,  incluyendo  todos  los  sistemas de fortificación. Por otro lado, el estudio de la cultura material recogida permite asignar las posiciones a uno y otro bando, ya que no se trató de un frente estable, sino que se vivieron diferentes episodios de cambios de posiciones entre el inicio y el final de la contienda

A risk society? Environmental hazards, risk and resilience in the later Middle Ages in Europe

Modern society is said to have restructured in reaction to contemporary hazards with the aim of improving its management of risk. This implies that pre-industrial societies were somehow fundamentally different. In this paper, we challenge that hypothesis by examining the ways in which risks associated with environmental hazards were managed and mitigated during the Middle Ages (defined here as the period from 1000 to 1550 AD). Beginning with a review of the many case studies of rapid onset disasters across Europe, we draw upon both historical and archaeological evidence and architectural assessments of structural damage for what is a pre-instrumental period. Building upon this, the second part of the paper explores individual outlooks on risk, emphasising the diversity of popular belief and the central importance of Christianity in framing attitudes. Despite their religious perspectives, we find that medieval communities were not helpless in the face of serious environmental hazards. We argue instead that the response of society to these threats was frequently complex, considered and, at times, surprisingly modern