Recent progress in understanding and predicting Atlantic decadal climate variability

Recent Atlantic climate prediction studies are an exciting new contribution to an extensive body of research on Atlantic decadal variability and predictability that has long emphasized the unique role of the Atlantic Ocean in modulating the surface climate. We present a survey of the foundations and frontiers in our understanding of Atlantic variability mechanisms, the role of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), and our present capacity for putting that understanding into practice in actual climate prediction systems

Influence of ocean–atmospheric oscillations on lake ice phenology in eastern North America

Our results reveal long-term trends in ice out dates (1836–2013) for twelve lakes in Maine, New Brunswick and New Hampshire, in eastern North America. The trends are remarkably coherent between lakes (rs = 0.462–0.933, p < 0.01) and correlate closely with the March–April (MA) instrumental temperature records from the region (rs = 0.488–0.816, p < 0.01). This correlation permits use of ice out dates as a proxy to extend the shorter MA instrumental record (1876–2013). Mean ice out dates trended progressively earlier during the recovery from the Little Ice Age through to the 1940s, and gradually became later again through to the late 1970s, when ice out dates had returned to values more typical of the late nineteenth century. Post-1970’s ice out dates resumed trending toward earlier dates, with the twenty-first century being characterized by the earliest ice out dates on record. Spectral and wavelet time series analysis indicate that ice out is influenced by several teleconnections including the Quasi-biennial Oscillation, El Niño-Southern Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, as well as a significant correlation between inland lake records and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. The relative influence of these teleconnections is variable with notable shifts occurring after ~1870, ~1925, and ~1980–2000. The intermittent expression of these cycles in the ice out and MA instrumental record is not only influenced by absolute changes in the intensity of the various teleconnections and other climate drivers, but through phase interference between teleconnections, which periodically damps the various signals

The major role of cytokines in the immune response – Modern immunotherapies in clinical practice

&lt;p&gt;Cytokines are defined as low molecular weight protein molecules that play a significant role in the immune response. They are divided into six groups: interleukines, interferons, tumor necrosis factors, growth factors, colony stimulating factors, chemokines. Cytokines are produced by numerous cell types, such as mononuclear-macrophages, lymphocytes, natural killer cells (NKs), mast cells and endothelial cells as well as fibroblasts. Their action aims at various cell populations, since cytokines are regulatory mediators of both natural and acquired immunity as well as of inflammation. Cytokines' impact on target cells requires their connection with specific membrane receptors on the cells. The signal eventually reaches the cells' nucleus after complicated chemical reactions with the participation of tyrosine kinases and transcription factors. The differentiation, proliferation and generally the functional alterations that target cells undergo after the influence of cytokines, make the immune response to adjust to organism's needs in order to eradicate the pathogenic factor. Thus, cytokines play a significant role in both the progress and the outcome of the immune response. On the basis of this, cytokines find excellent application into immunotherapies for many diseases over the last few years. Although many trials require further research, cytokines are proven to be valuable molecules in the manipulation of the immune response. Taking this into consideration, cytokines are used as biological markers for the prognosis and diagnosis of diseases as well as for therapeutic purposes. The US Food and Drug Administration has already approved of many immunotherapies such as those for AIDS, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, hepatitis B-C, T cell leukemia, septic shock, Kaposi's sarcoma, melanoma. Their application broadens at the extension of transplant life expectancy on experimental models. Despite the encouraging results of cytokines in clinical practice, challenges still exist concerning the side effects and the administrated doses of medication for each patient. Modern trials demand additional research aiming at the invention of safer and more efficient cytokine immunotherapy methods in the future.&lt;/p&gt

Pathophysiology of severe COVID-19 infection: predisposing factors and evolution

&lt;p&gt;An extremely contagious virus SARS-CoV-2 emerged two years ago causing COVID-19 infection and resulting to the current pandemic, the most challenging public health crisis we have ever faced. The virus is transmitted through the respiratory tract, mostly by inhalation of aerosols, and although its virulence was initially focused mainly on the lower respiratory system, now through evolutionary mechanisms and mutations of the viral genome, it has been confined to the upper respiratory system. The COVID-19 disease presents a very wide spectrum of severity, ranging from subclinical infection (asymptomatic), mild symptoms, to critical cases, not rarely fatal. The severity of the disease depends on the immune response of the host. Ιn critical cases, hyperinflammation and hyperreaction processes of the innate and adaptive immune systems are observed, ultimately resulting in Cytokine Storm Syndrome and cases of hypercoagulation. Severely ill patients may develop acute lymphopenia, eosinopenia and neutrophilia, and/or rapidly increased levels of D-dimers. Characteristic complications of the disease are pneumonia and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), which represent severe and life-threatening conditions. This review will explain the precise mechanisms concerning the pathophysiology of the severe COVID-19 infection. Firstly, we will analyze the excessive immune response and the extensive inflammation that follows during the emergent condition known as Cytokine Storm Syndrome. Furthermore, we will research complications related to hypercoagulation and thrombus formation, with particular reference to the development of pulmonary embolism and the aggressive activation of the complement system. In addition, references will be made to predisposing factors, such as genetic mutations and blood groups, which have been associated with the aggravated symptomatology of the infection, as well as to mechanisms of inhibition of the immune response disposed to SARS-CoV-2, data that need further clarification. Finally, the evolutionary course of the virus from the beginning of the pandemic until today will be explained by grouping the strains of variants of concern (VOC) and mentioning the differences between them, both at the genetic level and the properties that each emerging mutation provides.&lt;/p&gt

Life-Cycle Cost and Environmental Assessment of Decentralized Nitrogen Recovery Using Ion Exchange from Source-Separated Urine through Spatial Modeling

Nitrogen standards for discharge of wastewater effluent into aquatic bodies are becoming more stringent, requiring some treatment plants to reduce effluent nitrogen concentrations. This study aimed to assess, from a life-cycle perspective, an innovative decentralized approach to nitrogen recovery: ion exchange of source-separated urine. We modeled an approach in which nitrogen from urine at individual buildings is sorbed onto resins, then transported by truck to regeneration and fertilizer production facilities. To provide insight into impacts from transportation, we enhanced the traditional economic and environmental assessment approach by combining spatial analysis, system-scale evaluation, and detailed last-mile logistics modeling using the city of San Francisco as an illustrative case study. The major contributor to energy intensity and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was the production of sulfuric acid to regenerate resins, rather than transportation. Energy and GHG emissions were not significantly sensitive to the number of regeneration facilities. Cost, however, increased with decentralization as rental costs per unit area are higher for smaller areas. The metrics assessed (unit energy, GHG emissions, and cost) were not significantly influenced by facility location in this high-density urban area. We determined that this decentralized approach has lower cost, unit energy, and GHG emissions than centralized nitrogen management via nitrification-denitrification if fertilizer production offsets are taken into account

Techno-economic analysis and life-cycle greenhouse gas mitigation cost of five routes to bio-jet fuel blendstocks

Decarbonizing the air transportation sector remains one of the most challenging hurdles to mitigating climate change. Lignocellulosic biomass-derived jet fuel blendstocks can contribute to the shift toward renewable, low-carbon energy sources for aircrafts. Producing these renewable jet fuel molecules from biomass requires advanced pathways with the potential for efficient and affordable conversion routes. This paper presents a detailed techno-economic analysis and sensitivity analysis, including estimated minimum selling price (MSP), and life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation costs for five routes to four potential bio-jet fuel molecules-limonane via limonene, limonane via 1,8-cineole, tetrahydromethylcyclopentadiene dimer (RJ-4), bisabolane, and epi-isozizaane. The simulated biorefineries utilize biomass sorghum and an integrated high-gravity ionic liquid-based biomass deconstruction process. We present results reflecting the current state of the technology and potential future scenarios with improved yields. Among the conversion pathways and the fuel molecules evaluated in this study, limonane, bisabolane, and epi-isozizaane could reach an MSP of $0.73-$0.91 per L-Jet A ($2.75-$3.45 per gal-Jet A) in optimized future cases, without a hypothetical lignin-derived co-product. RJ-4 requires a more costly upgrading process and catalysts, resulting in a comparatively higher MSP ($1.33 per L-Jet A or$5.04 per gal-jet A). Based on the GHG footprints of each fuel, the minimum achievable carbon mitigation cost relative to conventional Jet-A is $29 per metric ton CO2e, which is just under double the current cap-and-trade market price in California. In the absence of any policy support, the economics could be improved through high-value uses for lignin. To reach a target selling price of$0.66 per L-Jet A ($2.50 per gal), lignin-derived products would need to be sold for at least$1.9 per kg. However, the higher energy density of these bio-based blendstocks offers valuable improvements in aircraft efficiency/range; we find that commercial airlines may be willing to pay a 4-14 cent per L premium for these bio-jet fuels. Our results highlight the need for improvements beyond currently-reported yields for the biologically produced intermediates, identification of ideal microbial hosts, selection of metabolic pathways to achieve competitive production costs, and a focus on fuels with attractive properties that increase their value