Assessment of Orange Losses and Existence of Post-Harvest Methods (PHM) Along the Coast Belt of Tanzania

An assessment of orange fruits losses and investigating of post-harvest methods was conducted in Mkuranga district which is situated along the Coast Belt of Tanzania. The district is among of the producer of orange fruits in the country. The study discovered that an average of 9,889 tons of pieces of orange fruits are produced mainly by small holder farmers in the district per year and about 3.9 tons (39.7 percent) of the produced orange fruits found to be wasted per year. The study analysis indicates that about 15 percent of the orange fruits wasted during harvesting process, 18 percent loss of orange fruits occurred during handling process, 50 percent of orange fruits lost at a storage places and 17 percent lost during transportation from farm to the market place.  At a household level, the analysis indicates that an average of 70 of orange trees owned per household and that at a moment of harvesting process each orange tree bears an average of 400 pieces of orange fruits. About 25,000 pieces of orange fruits investigated to be harvested per household per year where by an average of 19,000 pieces of orange fruits are sold per year per household at an average price of 30 TSH (equal to USD 0.018) per piece. About 3,000 piece of orange fruits found to be consumed by family members, relatives and friends per year per household and an average of 3,000 pieces of orange fruits found to be wasted per year per household. The study revealed that an existing methods and facilities for harvesting (orange smashing), handling and storage (nylon and plastic bags) are poor and are main causes of the orange waste or loss in the district.  Moreover, poor transportation infrastructures such as road is noted to contribute in fruit loss. Improved methods and facilities for harvesting, handling, storage and transportation are suggested to be commenced in the district for orange loss reduction. Trainings, awareness and skills at each point of post-harvest chain (PPHC) starting from primary to secondary actors should be collectively emphasized by both government and non-government institutions in Tanzania. Keywords: Orange losses, Existing-post-harvest methods, Coast Belt of Tanzani

Farmer’s Knowledge on Selection and Conservation of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Genetic Resources in Tanzania.

Farmers have traditionally depended on their knowledge to cultivate diverse set of crop population for their subsistence. This practice has contributed to high genetic diversity found in farmers’ fields. Occurrence of natural disasters has threaten survival of crop populations and diversity, and thus causing food shortage. Breeding efforts have been targeted to develop crop varieties which can tolerate these natural disasters but there has been poor adoption by farmers. There is a need to understand social and biological factors which farmer base on during selection and maintenance of their genetic resources. There is limited information for researcher’s understanding of factors that farmers considered for landraces selection and conservation. In a view of the above mentioned problems a study was conducted using PRA tools to gather information on conservation of cassava genetic resources. The study found that farmer’s decision on what landrace to plant was what has shaped the diversity. Farmer’s decision comprised of diverse factors from food security, market forces and culinary attributes. The study found that seed (stem cuttings) flow occurs as farmers exchange or buy from local market. These exchanges occur within and outside the village. Most of cassava landraces were indigenous to the place and have been grown for more than 40 years, and only 8.4% were newly introduced. There was considerably loss of landraces due to disease, pest and drought outbreaks. Landrace selection decision was made by both men and women and these decisions on the other hand influenced the diversity of cassava landraces found in farmer’s field. Cultivars like Kiroba, Kibandameno and Msenene were found in every farmer’s field in those particular areas but other cassava landraces differed considerably from one field to another. It is concluded that farmer’s knowledge is useful in conservation of cassava genetic resources for improved livelihood. Therefore farmer’s knowledge should be incorporated in research intervention packages to be able to address specific needs of farmers in a particular area and fasten the adoption process. Keyword: Farmer’s knowledge; Genetic resources; Kiroba, Farmer’s decision making

Effect of genotype and genotype by environment interaction on total cyanide content, fresh root, and starch yield in farmer-preferred cassava landraces in Tanzania

High starch yield is the most important trait for commercialized cassava starch production. Furthermore, cyanide present in cassava roots poses a health challenge in the use of cassava for food. Cassava genotypes have varying maturity periods that are also environmental dependent. This study aimed at identifying suitable cultivars and optimum time of harvest to maximize starch production across three environments. The study found significant difference between genotypes, locations, harvest period, and all the interactions (P ≤ 0.001) for all traits analyzed. Kiroba recorded high starch yields of 17.4, 12.7, and 8.2 t ha−1 at Chambezi, Amani, and Magadu, respectively. Kilusungu recorded highest cyanide content of 300–400 ppm across all locations but Kiroba recorded highest values of 800 ppm, 15 months after planting at Chambezi. Genotype by environment (GGE) biplot analysis revealed that Kiroba was a superior cultivar in terms of starch yield. Kilusungu recorded highest cyanide content and average starch yield, therefore suitable for use in starch production. The study confirmed effect of genotype and genotype by environment interaction, Kiroba cultivar was superior in terms of starch yield and maximum starch yield was obtained at 9 months after planting. Nyamkagile and Kibandameno had the lowest cyanide content across all environments

Assessment of the Quality of coffee parchments in Southern Highlands of Tanzania: A case of Mbozi District in Songwe Region

It’s unfortunate that even a single defective of a coffee bean can contribute to affect the receptive-lot of coffee. Coffee parchments or beans with high quality fetches high price in the world market. The study aimed at assessing the quality of coffee parchments along the post-harvest stages. Main focus was on improvement of post-harvest practices for coffee quality of coffee from farm level and to the processing under supervision of primary societies. The study involved coffee farmers in 6 Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives Societies (AMCOS). Questionnaire, check list tools and physical observation were used for data collection. The result indicates that coffee farmers in Tanzania failed to fetch a good price from their produce due to low grades and classes of coffee parchments. Low grades and classes were observed to be attributed by application of poor practices along the coffee value chain. Our study suggests that, coffee stakeholders and the government should support the development of coffee sector along the value chain by up-scaling of good practices. Keywords: Coffee Quality; Red-Cherries and Parchments, Mbozi Tanzani

Genetic diversity, starch physicochemical properties and cyanide levels of farmer preferred cassava landraces in the Eastern zone of Tanzania

Cassava is an important staple crop and its starch is an important source of biomaterial for food and non-food industries. Processing of cassava is very important due to its rapid postharvest deterioration and cyanide content, but it can also add value and provides employment opportunities. There is a correlation between cyanogenic poison and poverty in communities where cassava is a staple food. Therefore development of starches occupies a central position in the quest for cassava commercialization, thus stimulating increased cassava production. Moreover,the farmer will realize profit from cassava production and hence improved food security at farmer‟s level. To meet such a high demand of cassava in Tanzania, cultivar selection, production and processing need to be improved. A study was therefore conducted to understand farmer preference for cassava landraces, cassava genetic diversity present in the farmer‟s field and to assess suitability of commonly grown cultivars for commercialized starch production for different applications and cyanogenic potential. The specific objectives were: i) To gather farmer‟s indigenous knowledge on cassava variety selection and conservation in the Eastern zone of Tanzania. ii) To characterize farmers preferred cassava landraces in Eastern zone of Tanzania using morphological and molecular techniques. iii) To assess variation in physicochemical characteristics and functional properties of selected cassava starch. iv) To determine the effect of genotype, location and harvesting time on fresh root yield, starch yield and root cyanide content of selected cassava landraces. Participatory rural appraisal approaches were used to gather farmers‟ knowledge on conservation of cassava genetic resources. During the survey 52 cassava landraces wereiii collected and characterized. Farmer‟s decision on landrace to be grown was the main factor which was found to influence cassava diversity in the fields. Farmer‟s decision was based on of diverse factors from food security, market forces and culinary attributes. Seed flow occurs as farmers exchange or buy from local market also contributed to the diversity found in the farmer‟s fields. Fresh root yield followed by early maturity were the most preferred attributes. The genetic relationship and diversity of 52 farmers preferred cassava landraces were successfully characterised using morphological and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) data. The results of analysis showed a substantial diversity in cassava germplasm found in farmer‟s field. Both morphological (genetic distance of 1.18 to 0.15) and SNPs (genetic distance of 0.076 to 0.002) analysis revealed considerable variability among cassava landraces and cluster analysis did not segregate landraces according to geographic location. In general, the internal branches of the dendogram from SNPs analysis were short while external branches were long, indicating that within group variability was higher than between groups. The most divergent cultivars revealed by morphological analysis were Kichooko, Mbega, Shibatumbo and Pusuu, and SNPs analysis revealed Mbega and Mzungu Mweupe to be highly diverse. Of the 52 collected cassava landraces, six commonly grown were identified and further analysis was done to assess variation in physicochemical characteristics, starch yield and cyanogenic potentials. Moreover,analysis has shown that there is a difference in physicochemical characteristics between landraces (p≤0.05), and can be targeted to different industrial applications. The study also illustrated genotypic difference in starch yield and cyanogenic potential as previously described by other authors. Among landraces, Kiroba showed potential for maximum starch yield (12.8 t ha -1 ) followed by Msenene (12.3 t ha -1 ) and third was Kilusungu (10.2 t ha -1 ). The optimal harvest time foriv maximum starch yield was found to be 12 months after planting for most cultivars. The cyanide content of cassava landraces was between 15 and 800 ppm across all trial sites. Moreover Kilusungu displayed high cyanide (400 ppm) levels compared with cultivars across all trial site. This cultivar exhibited a high potential for starch production as displayed by near average starch yield compared with other cultivars. Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was done to distinguish among cassava starches based on the physicochemical and functional properties. When only starch functionality properties were considered, landrace Nyamkagile was the most divergent among landrace, followed by Kalolo and Msenene, with setback viscosity, solubility at 90 °C and syneresis at -20 °C underpinning this differentiation. Msenene and Kilusungu had high swelling power, which makes them potentially suitable for use as thickeners and binding agents for food and non-food uses. Msenene also had a relatively low setback viscosity after cooling, and low syneresis, (p>0.05), desirable properties in starches for gelling agents and thickeners in refrigerated and frozen food products. Kibandameno starch had the highest enzyme digestibility and lowest particle size distribution (p<0.05) compared with starches. This makes the cultivar suitable for making glucose syrup, adjuncts in breweries (fermentation stock), low fibre feed and sweeteners.Nyamkagile(p<0.05) had the lowest digestibility and may find application in food for individuals wishing to manage their glycemic index such as diabetic and overweight patients. Based on this study, farmer‟s knowledge was documented and diversity found in farmer‟s field was confirmed by morphological descriptors and SNP analysis. SNP markers were able to discriminate morphologically similar landraces (Kasunga and Nyamkagile) and morphologically different landraces, Pusuu and Pushuli were found by SNPs analysis to be genetically near identical. The advantage of SNP to discriminate closely related individuals has been shown by this study. This collectionv revealed a wide range of genetic diversity and represents a valuable resource for trait improvement enabling capture of farmer preferred traits in future cassava breeding programmes. Other desirable traits can be exploited and incorporated during breeding. Data generated from this study will help the breeders to devise more appropriate and cost effective breeding strategies and will aid in deciding which germplasm to conserve.It is recommended thatappropriate policies need to be put in place in favour of development of starch industries. It is is also argued to devise germplasm conservation strategy to prevent loss of germplasm and ensure conservation of desirable traits.Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH

Kuchunguza Tamathali za Usemi katika Mashairi ya Magazetini: Uchunguzi kifani wa Mashairi ya UKIMWI katika Magazeti ya Kiswahili

Utafiti huu umeshughulikia matumizi ya lugha ya tamathali za usemi katika mashairi ya magazetini. Ili kukamilisha lengo hili kuu madhumuni mahususi matatu yalitimizwa. Madhumuni hayo yalihusu kubainisha tamathali za usemi, dhamira na dhima za tamathali za usemi katika kujenga dhamira mbalimbali katika mashairi ya magazetini. Mtafiti ametumia mbinu za uchambuzi wa kimaudhui, usaili na upitiaji wa nyaraka katika kukusanya data za utafiti. Mikabala ya kifasihi na ule wa kimaelezo ndio iliyotumika katika kuchambua data za utafiti wetu. Kwa ujumla utafiti umeweza kukusanya data ambazo zimeweza kujibu maswali ya utafiti wetu ambapo imethihirika kwamba, mashairi ya magazetini yamesheheni matumizi ya tamathali mbalimbali za usemi. Pia imebainika kwamba tamathali hizo za usemi zinatumika kujenga dhamira mbalimbali na mwisho tamathali za usemi zimebainika kuwa na dhima mbalimbali za kifani na kimaudhui katika kujenga na kuwasilisha dhamira mbalimbali kuhusiana na masuala ya UKIMWI kwa jamii ya Kitanzania. Mwishoni mwa utafiti kumetolewa mapendekezo kwa wadau mbalimbali wa mashairi ya magazetini kuhusiana na namna bora za kuimarisha mashairi hayo ili yaendelee kutekeleza wajibu wake kwa jamii. Pia, tumetoa mapendekezo kwa ajili ya tafiti za baadaye katika uwanja wa mashairi ya magazetini

Genetic diversity, starch physicochemical properties and cyanide levels of farmer preferred cassava landraces in the Eastern zone of Tanzania

Cassava is an important staple crop and its starch is an important source of biomaterial for food and non-food industries. Processing of cassava is very important due to its rapid postharvest deterioration and cyanide content, but it can also add value and provides employment opportunities. There is a correlation between cyanogenic poison and poverty in communities where cassava is a staple food. Therefore development of starches occupies a central position in the quest for cassava commercialization, thus stimulating increased cassava production. Moreover,the farmer will realize profit from cassava production and hence improved food security at farmer‟s level. To meet such a high demand of cassava in Tanzania, cultivar selection, production and processing need to be improved. A study was therefore conducted to understand farmer preference for cassava landraces, cassava genetic diversity present in the farmer‟s field and to assess suitability of commonly grown cultivars for commercialized starch production for different applications and cyanogenic potential. The specific objectives were: i) To gather farmer‟s indigenous knowledge on cassava variety selection and conservation in the Eastern zone of Tanzania. ii) To characterize farmers preferred cassava landraces in Eastern zone of Tanzania using morphological and molecular techniques. iii) To assess variation in physicochemical characteristics and functional properties of selected cassava starch. iv) To determine the effect of genotype, location and harvesting time on fresh root yield, starch yield and root cyanide content of selected cassava landraces. Participatory rural appraisal approaches were used to gather farmers‟ knowledge on conservation of cassava genetic resources. During the survey 52 cassava landraces wereiii collected and characterized. Farmer‟s decision on landrace to be grown was the main factor which was found to influence cassava diversity in the fields. Farmer‟s decision was based on of diverse factors from food security, market forces and culinary attributes. Seed flow occurs as farmers exchange or buy from local market also contributed to the diversity found in the farmer‟s fields. Fresh root yield followed by early maturity were the most preferred attributes. The genetic relationship and diversity of 52 farmers preferred cassava landraces were successfully characterised using morphological and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) data. The results of analysis showed a substantial diversity in cassava germplasm found in farmer‟s field. Both morphological (genetic distance of 1.18 to 0.15) and SNPs (genetic distance of 0.076 to 0.002) analysis revealed considerable variability among cassava landraces and cluster analysis did not segregate landraces according to geographic location. In general, the internal branches of the dendogram from SNPs analysis were short while external branches were long, indicating that within group variability was higher than between groups. The most divergent cultivars revealed by morphological analysis were Kichooko, Mbega, Shibatumbo and Pusuu, and SNPs analysis revealed Mbega and Mzungu Mweupe to be highly diverse. Of the 52 collected cassava landraces, six commonly grown were identified and further analysis was done to assess variation in physicochemical characteristics, starch yield and cyanogenic potentials. Moreover,analysis has shown that there is a difference in physicochemical characteristics between landraces (p≤0.05), and can be targeted to different industrial applications. The study also illustrated genotypic difference in starch yield and cyanogenic potential as previously described by other authors. Among landraces, Kiroba showed potential for maximum starch yield (12.8 t ha -1 ) followed by Msenene (12.3 t ha -1 ) and third was Kilusungu (10.2 t ha -1 ). The optimal harvest time foriv maximum starch yield was found to be 12 months after planting for most cultivars. The cyanide content of cassava landraces was between 15 and 800 ppm across all trial sites. Moreover Kilusungu displayed high cyanide (400 ppm) levels compared with cultivars across all trial site. This cultivar exhibited a high potential for starch production as displayed by near average starch yield compared with other cultivars. Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was done to distinguish among cassava starches based on the physicochemical and functional properties. When only starch functionality properties were considered, landrace Nyamkagile was the most divergent among landrace, followed by Kalolo and Msenene, with setback viscosity, solubility at 90 °C and syneresis at -20 °C underpinning this differentiation. Msenene and Kilusungu had high swelling power, which makes them potentially suitable for use as thickeners and binding agents for food and non-food uses. Msenene also had a relatively low setback viscosity after cooling, and low syneresis, (p>0.05), desirable properties in starches for gelling agents and thickeners in refrigerated and frozen food products. Kibandameno starch had the highest enzyme digestibility and lowest particle size distribution (p<0.05) compared with starches. This makes the cultivar suitable for making glucose syrup, adjuncts in breweries (fermentation stock), low fibre feed and sweeteners.Nyamkagile(p<0.05) had the lowest digestibility and may find application in food for individuals wishing to manage their glycemic index such as diabetic and overweight patients. Based on this study, farmer‟s knowledge was documented and diversity found in farmer‟s field was confirmed by morphological descriptors and SNP analysis. SNP markers were able to discriminate morphologically similar landraces (Kasunga and Nyamkagile) and morphologically different landraces, Pusuu and Pushuli were found by SNPs analysis to be genetically near identical. The advantage of SNP to discriminate closely related individuals has been shown by this study. This collectionv revealed a wide range of genetic diversity and represents a valuable resource for trait improvement enabling capture of farmer preferred traits in future cassava breeding programmes. Other desirable traits can be exploited and incorporated during breeding. Data generated from this study will help the breeders to devise more appropriate and cost effective breeding strategies and will aid in deciding which germplasm to conserve.It is recommended thatappropriate policies need to be put in place in favour of development of starch industries. It is is also argued to devise germplasm conservation strategy to prevent loss of germplasm and ensure conservation of desirable traits.Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH

Opportunities to commercialize cassava production for poverty alleviation and improved food security in Tanzania

Cassava is the world's fourth most important staple crop after rice, wheat and maize, and plays an essential role in food security. Due to cassava's growth characteristics and ability to grow in poor soils and regions prone to drought, it is preferred by resourcepoor farmers in many tropical countries. While cassava plays an important role as a food security crop for subsistence farmers, it is prone to rapid postharvest deterioration. Processing cassava for starch is another strategy for overcoming post-harvest losses, can add value to end products and has the potential to create additional employment opportunities along the supply chain. Cassava starch is an important source of biomaterial for different food and non-food industrial applications. Moreover, farmers producing cassava can increase their income by finding alternative end uses to home consumption. To meet the high demand for cassava in Tanzania, cultivar selection, production and processing all need to be improved. Enabling policies that create satisfactory business opportunities for small holder farmers, traders and processors for starch industries is also critical. The aim of this review is to explore the potential of the cassava subsector to contribute to the economy of sub-Saharan countries, particularly Tanzania, and to present how industrial use of domestic cassava starch can help tackle problems of unemployment and food security

Assessing variation in physicochemical, structural, and functional properties of root starches from novel Tanzanian cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) landraces

Cassava is an ideal "climate change" crop valued for its efficient production of root starch. Here, the physicochemical properties and functionality of starches isolated from six cassava landraces were explored to determine how they varied from each other and from those previously described, and how they may be potentially used as value-added foods and biomaterials. Among genotypes, the parameters assayed showed a narrower range of values compared to published data, perhaps indicating a local preference for a certain cassava-type. Dry matter (30-39%), amylose (11-19%), starch (74-80%), and reducing sugar contents (1-3%) differed most among samples (p ≤ 0.05). Only one of the six genotypes differed in starch crystallinity (41.4%; while the data ranged from 36.0 to 37.9%), and mean starch granule particle size, (12.5 μm instead of 13.09-13.80 μm), while amylopectin glucan chain distribution and granule morphology were the same. In contrast, the starch functionality features measured: swelling power, solubility, syneresis, and digestibility differed among genotypes (p ≤ 0.05). This was supported by partial least square discriminant analysis, which highlighted the divergence among the cassavas based on starch functionality. Using these data, suggestions for the targeted uses of these starches in diverse industries were proposed