Insulin and diabetes

U ovom radu izložen je kratki pregled metabolizma hormona inzulina i najraširenijeg i najpoznatijeg poremećaja tog metabolizma, dijabetesa. Inzulin proizvode β-stanice Langerhansovih otočića gušterače, te se iz ovih stanica izlučuje kao odgovor na povišenu razinu glukoze u krvi. On smanjuje koncentraciju glukoze u krvi aktiviranjem biosintetskih i inhibiranjem kataboličkih procesa. Inzulin može djelovati samo na one stanice koje posjeduju specifični inzulinski receptor protein na plazmatskoj membrani. Vezanje inzulina na takav receptor povećava brzinu transporta glukoze kroz membranu u stanice. Postoje dva glavna oblika dijabetesa sa različitim uzrocima. Dijabetes melitus tip I, nazvan i inzulin-ovisni dijabetes, je autoimuni poremećaj, u kojem vlastiti imunološki sustav napada stanice gušterače. Ovaj se poremećaj obično javlja prilično naglo tijekom djetinjstva, uništavajući sposobnost organizma da proizvodi inzulin. Terapija se sastoji od inzulinskih injekcija, koje se obično uzimaju nekoliko puta na dan. Dijabetes melitus tip II je okarakteriziran umanjenim odgovorom ciljnih stanica zbog promjene u inzulinskim receptorima. Kod ljudi se obično pojavljuje nakon tridesete godine, te njegova vjerojatnost raste sa starošću osobe, a genetičko nasljeđe i pretilost oboje imaju vrlo važnu ulogu u njegovom razvoju. Preko 90% dijabetičara pati od dijabetesa tipa II i mnogi od njih mogu kontrolirati svoju razinu krvne glukoze isključivo vježbanjem i prehranom, ali dostupni su i lijekovi koji im pomažu u tome.In this work, a short review of hormone insulin metabolism, and its most widespread and most famous disorder diabetes, has been presented. β-cells in Langerhans islets of the pancreas produce insulin, and excrete it as response to an increased level of blood glucose. Its function is to decrease the blood glucose level by activating biosynthetic and inhibiting catabolic processes. Insulin can act only on cells with a specific insulin receptor protein on their plasma membrane. Binding of insulin to specific receptors increases the rate of glucose transport through the membrane into the cells. There are two main forms of diabetes with different causes. Type I diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes, is an autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system mounts an attack on the cells of the pancreas. This disorder usually occurs suddenly during childhood, destroying the organism’s ability to produce insulin. Treatment consists of insulin injections, which are usually taken several times per day. More than 90% of diabetics are type II which is characterized by reduced responsiveness in target cells due to a change in insulin receptors. It usually occurs after the age 30, becoming more likely with increasing age, and both heredity and obesity are major factors in its development. Therefore many control their blood glucose solely by exercise and proper diet, although helpful drugs are also available

Variability of major histocompatibility complex DQA and DQB class II genes in the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) and Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus)

Glavni sustav tkivne podudarnosti (MHC) ima središnju imunoregulacijsku ulogu. Raznolikost MHC-a je bitna za preživljavanje vrste jer omogućava prepoznavanje širokog spektra patogena. Ta raznolikost je nastala pod utjecajem selekcije, pa MHC geni služe kao biljezi za proučavanje adaptivne evolucije populacija i vrsta. Plavobijeli dupin (Stenella coeruleoalba) i glavati dupin (Grampus griseus) pripadaju porodici Delphinidae, podred Odontoceti, red Cetacea. Obje vrste nastanjuju topla i umjereno topla mora i to uglavnom pučinske dijelove. Cilj istraživanja bio je odrediti razinu raznolikosti gena DQA i DQB skupine II MHC sustava plavobijelog i glavatog dupina. U uzorcima tkiva 24 jedinke plavobijelog i osam jedinki glavatog dupina iz Sredozemnog mora pronađen je ukupno 21 alel na DQA lokusu i 21 alel na DQB lokusu, od kojih su samo tri DQA alela poznata iz prethodnih istraživanja. Broj jedinstvenih alela, kao i evolucijske udaljenosti ukazuju na visok stupanj raznolikosti u obje vrste, dok omjer stopa nesinonimnih i sinonimnih supstitucija potvrđuje pretpostavku da je raznolikost na istraživanim lokusima održavana pozitivnom selekcijom.Major histocompatibility system (MHC) has a central role in the regulation of immune response. MHC diversity is essential for the survival of the species because it allows for the recognition of a wide spectrum of pathogens. That diversity evolved under selective pressure, so MHC genes can be used as markers for the study of adaptive evolution in populations or species. Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) and Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) are a part of the family Delphinidae, suborder Odontoceti, order Cetacea. Both species inhabit pelagic warm and temperate waters. The goal of this study was to determine the variability of MHC class II DQA and DQB genes in the striped dolphin and Risso’s dolphin. In tissue samples from 21 striped and eight Risso’s dolphins a total of 21 DQA and 21 DQB alleles were found, of which only three DQA alleles were known from previous studies. The number of unique alleles, as well as the calculated evolutionary distances show a high level of diversity in both species, while the rates of non-synonymous and synonymous substitutions indicate the maintenance of the diversity on both loci by positive selection

Insulin and diabetes

U ovom radu izložen je kratki pregled metabolizma hormona inzulina i najraširenijeg i najpoznatijeg poremećaja tog metabolizma, dijabetesa. Inzulin proizvode β-stanice Langerhansovih otočića gušterače, te se iz ovih stanica izlučuje kao odgovor na povišenu razinu glukoze u krvi. On smanjuje koncentraciju glukoze u krvi aktiviranjem biosintetskih i inhibiranjem kataboličkih procesa. Inzulin može djelovati samo na one stanice koje posjeduju specifični inzulinski receptor protein na plazmatskoj membrani. Vezanje inzulina na takav receptor povećava brzinu transporta glukoze kroz membranu u stanice. Postoje dva glavna oblika dijabetesa sa različitim uzrocima. Dijabetes melitus tip I, nazvan i inzulin-ovisni dijabetes, je autoimuni poremećaj, u kojem vlastiti imunološki sustav napada stanice gušterače. Ovaj se poremećaj obično javlja prilično naglo tijekom djetinjstva, uništavajući sposobnost organizma da proizvodi inzulin. Terapija se sastoji od inzulinskih injekcija, koje se obično uzimaju nekoliko puta na dan. Dijabetes melitus tip II je okarakteriziran umanjenim odgovorom ciljnih stanica zbog promjene u inzulinskim receptorima. Kod ljudi se obično pojavljuje nakon tridesete godine, te njegova vjerojatnost raste sa starošću osobe, a genetičko nasljeđe i pretilost oboje imaju vrlo važnu ulogu u njegovom razvoju. Preko 90% dijabetičara pati od dijabetesa tipa II i mnogi od njih mogu kontrolirati svoju razinu krvne glukoze isključivo vježbanjem i prehranom, ali dostupni su i lijekovi koji im pomažu u tome.In this work, a short review of hormone insulin metabolism, and its most widespread and most famous disorder diabetes, has been presented. β-cells in Langerhans islets of the pancreas produce insulin, and excrete it as response to an increased level of blood glucose. Its function is to decrease the blood glucose level by activating biosynthetic and inhibiting catabolic processes. Insulin can act only on cells with a specific insulin receptor protein on their plasma membrane. Binding of insulin to specific receptors increases the rate of glucose transport through the membrane into the cells. There are two main forms of diabetes with different causes. Type I diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes, is an autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system mounts an attack on the cells of the pancreas. This disorder usually occurs suddenly during childhood, destroying the organism’s ability to produce insulin. Treatment consists of insulin injections, which are usually taken several times per day. More than 90% of diabetics are type II which is characterized by reduced responsiveness in target cells due to a change in insulin receptors. It usually occurs after the age 30, becoming more likely with increasing age, and both heredity and obesity are major factors in its development. Therefore many control their blood glucose solely by exercise and proper diet, although helpful drugs are also available

Insulin and diabetes

U ovom radu izložen je kratki pregled metabolizma hormona inzulina i najraširenijeg i najpoznatijeg poremećaja tog metabolizma, dijabetesa. Inzulin proizvode β-stanice Langerhansovih otočića gušterače, te se iz ovih stanica izlučuje kao odgovor na povišenu razinu glukoze u krvi. On smanjuje koncentraciju glukoze u krvi aktiviranjem biosintetskih i inhibiranjem kataboličkih procesa. Inzulin može djelovati samo na one stanice koje posjeduju specifični inzulinski receptor protein na plazmatskoj membrani. Vezanje inzulina na takav receptor povećava brzinu transporta glukoze kroz membranu u stanice. Postoje dva glavna oblika dijabetesa sa različitim uzrocima. Dijabetes melitus tip I, nazvan i inzulin-ovisni dijabetes, je autoimuni poremećaj, u kojem vlastiti imunološki sustav napada stanice gušterače. Ovaj se poremećaj obično javlja prilično naglo tijekom djetinjstva, uništavajući sposobnost organizma da proizvodi inzulin. Terapija se sastoji od inzulinskih injekcija, koje se obično uzimaju nekoliko puta na dan. Dijabetes melitus tip II je okarakteriziran umanjenim odgovorom ciljnih stanica zbog promjene u inzulinskim receptorima. Kod ljudi se obično pojavljuje nakon tridesete godine, te njegova vjerojatnost raste sa starošću osobe, a genetičko nasljeđe i pretilost oboje imaju vrlo važnu ulogu u njegovom razvoju. Preko 90% dijabetičara pati od dijabetesa tipa II i mnogi od njih mogu kontrolirati svoju razinu krvne glukoze isključivo vježbanjem i prehranom, ali dostupni su i lijekovi koji im pomažu u tome.In this work, a short review of hormone insulin metabolism, and its most widespread and most famous disorder diabetes, has been presented. β-cells in Langerhans islets of the pancreas produce insulin, and excrete it as response to an increased level of blood glucose. Its function is to decrease the blood glucose level by activating biosynthetic and inhibiting catabolic processes. Insulin can act only on cells with a specific insulin receptor protein on their plasma membrane. Binding of insulin to specific receptors increases the rate of glucose transport through the membrane into the cells. There are two main forms of diabetes with different causes. Type I diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes, is an autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system mounts an attack on the cells of the pancreas. This disorder usually occurs suddenly during childhood, destroying the organism’s ability to produce insulin. Treatment consists of insulin injections, which are usually taken several times per day. More than 90% of diabetics are type II which is characterized by reduced responsiveness in target cells due to a change in insulin receptors. It usually occurs after the age 30, becoming more likely with increasing age, and both heredity and obesity are major factors in its development. Therefore many control their blood glucose solely by exercise and proper diet, although helpful drugs are also available

Sličnosti i razlike vibrioze kod lubina uzrokovane bakterijama Vibrio anguillarum i Vibrio harveyi

Vibrioses caused by different members of the genus Vibrio are common diseases in aquaculture characterised by systemic infections, high mortalities, and economic losses of fish and shellfish. Farming of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) has rapidly grown over the last decade in Croatia but its economic efficacy is significantly jeopardized by losses due to Vibrio anguillarum and Vibrio harveyi infection. Therefore, we studied and compared the most prominent similarities and differences in the environmental conditions, clinical signs and conventional and molecular diagnostic methods of vibriosis caused by both bacterial pathogens. Outbreaks in sea bass and sea bream caused by V. anguillarum mostly occur during the spring and autumn, following a fast increase or decrease in the sea temperature, whereas infections with V. harveyi occur during the summer months at a temperature above 20oC. They have a similar clinical appearance in the acute form but in subacute forms they differ. V. anguillarum infection is characterized by massive haemorrhages in the abdominal wall, while during infection with V. harveyi keratitis, corneal opacity and uncoordinated swimming behaviour are noticed. Necropsy disclosed haemorrhages in the liver, intestine and stomach during infection with V. anguillarum, and sero-catarrhal enteritis with distension of the intestine and ascites in the case of V. harveyi. Although molecular tools enable correct identification, in this study we defined the main differences capable of distinguishing V. anguillarum from V. harveyi based on traditional bacteriological identification such as sensitivity to O/129 (10 μg) and novobiocin, and the enzymatic activity of β-galactosidase, arginine dihydrolase and amygdalin fermentation.Vibrioze uzrokovane bakterijama roda Vibrio su česte bolesti u akvakulturi, a karakteriziraju ih sustavne infekcije, visoka smrtnost i ekonomski gubici riba i školjkaša. Uzgoj lubina (Dicentrarchus labrax) i komarče (Sparus aurata) u Hrvatskoj je u posljednjem desetljeću naglo porastao, a ekonomska učinkovitost značajno je ugrožena gubicima zbog infekcije bakterijama Vibrio anguillarum i Vibrio harveyi. Stoga smo proučavali i usporedili okolišne uvjete, kliničke znakove te konvencionalne i molekularne dijagnostičke metode vibrioze uzrokovane s oba bakterijska patogena. Vibrioze uzrokovane bakterijom V. anguillarum kod lubina i komarče uglavnom se javljaju tijekom proljeća i jeseni, nakon brzog porasta ili sniženja temperature mora, dok se infekcije V. harveyi javljaju tijekom ljetnih mjeseci na temperaturama mora iznad 20 °C. Imaju sličnu kliničku sliku u akutnom obliku, ali se u subakutnom obliku razlikuju. Infekciju V. anguillarum karakteriziraju masivna krvarenja po trbušnoj stijenci, dok se kod infekcije V. harveyi uočava keratitis, zamućenje rožnice i nekoordinirano plivanje. Tijekom infekcije bakterijom V. anguillarum, razudbom su vidljiva krvarenja na jetri, crijevima i želucu. U slučaju infekcije s V. harveyi, vidljivi su sero-kataralni enteritis s distenzijom crijeva i ascitesom. Iako molekularna dijagnostika omogućava ispravnu identifikaciju, u ovom istraživanju smo definirali glavne čimbenike koje mogu razlikovati V. anguillarum od V. harveyi na temelju tradicionalne bakteriološke identifikacije kao što su osjetljivost na O/129 (10 μg) i novobiocin, te enzimska aktivnost β -galaktozidaze, arginin dihidrolaze i fermentacija amigdalina

Emerging vibriosis of Mediterranean fish caused by the bacterial species Vibrio harveyi: an overview

Bakterije roda Vibrio spp. su najčešći uzročnici bolesti akvatičnih životinja. Pripadaju porodici Vibrionaceae u kojoj je jedan od najznačajnih predstavnika klad Vibrio harveyi. V. harveyi se uobičajeno nalazi u morskom okolišu i predstavnik je normalne flore akvatičnih životinja. Brojni sojevi su opisani kao uzročnici bolesti morskih rakova i školjkaša. U posljednje vrijeme V. harveyi nanosi velike štete u uzgoju mediteranskih vrsta riba, posebice u ljetnim mjesecima. V. harveyi je Gram-negativna, halofilna, aerobna ili fakultativno anaerobna, načelno nije zoonotska bakterija, međutim zabilježeni su izdvojeni slučajevi oboljenja ljudi. Neki sojevi su visoko patogeni dok se drugi smatraju uvjetno patogenima. Glavni čimbenici virulencije su bičevi, litički enzimi, kapsula, siderofore, hidrofobni površinski antigeni i sposobnost prianjanja i infekcije epitelnih stanica domaćina. Sposobnost stvaranja biofilma omogućava rezistenciju na antibiotike, a sposobnost bakterija da izvlače željezo iz stanica domaćina je ključna za njihovo preživljavanje. Intracelularni sustav omogućava međustaničnu komunikaciju bakterija. Klinički znaci su slični drugim bakterijskim infekcijama u riba, a obično započinju letargijom i gubitkom apetita. V. harveyi posjeduje urođenu rezistenciju na neke antibiotike. U novije se vrijeme razvija bakteriofagna terapija koja je daje obećavajuće rezultate. Cijepljenje je jedan od najučinkovitijih načina prevencije bolesti i metoda redukcije gubitaka i smanjenja uporabe antibiotika. Dobra proizvođačka praksa koja podrazumijeva optimalne uvjete u uzgojnim jedinicama kao i primjena mjera biosigurnosti su važni u spriječavanju ulaska uzročnika bolesti u farmu i širenja na sve uzgojne jedinice. Sve češće se javljaju infekcije visoko patogenim emergentnim sojevima Vibrio harveyi. Uzevši u obzir činjenicu da je V. harveyi moguće izdvojiti iz okoliša, morskih organizama i probavnog trakta zdravih jedinki, očito je da postoje različiti sojevi iste bakterijske vrste te je potrebno definirati razlike između apatogenih i patogenih sojeva.Bacteria of the genus Vibrio spp. family Vibrionaceae are the most common causative agents of disease in aquatic animals. Economically, the members of the Harvey clade, with eleven closely related bacterial species, are the most important representatives of the genus Vibrio. V. harvey is commonly found in the marine environment and is a normal part of the microflora of aquatic animals. Numerous strains are described as pathogens for crustaceans and molluscs. The prevalence of infection with V. harvey is increasing and affecting more Mediterranean fish species, especially in the summer months. It is a Gram-negative, halophilic, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacteria. In general, it does not have zoonotic potential, though cases of human infection caused by this bacterium have been described. Some strains are highly pathogenic while others are considered opportunistic pathogens. The main virulence factors are bacterial flagellum, lytic enzymes, capsule, siderophores, hydrophobic surface antigens and its ability to adhere and infect epithelial host cells. Production of biofilm is a mechanism of antibiotic resistance, and the ability of the bacteria to extract iron from host cells is crucial for their survival. The intracellular system allows intercellular communication between bacteria. Clinical signs are similar to other bacterial infections in fish, usually starting with lethargy and loss of appetite. V. harveyi has an innate resistance to certain antibiotics. Recently, bacteriophage therapy has been developed and is showing promising results. Vaccination is one of the most effective ways of preventing disease, reducing losses and reducing antibiotic use. Good manufacturing practice and application of biosecurity measures are very important to minimizing the risk of introducing an infectious disease and its spread to animals within a facility. More often, infections occur with highly pathogenic emergent strains of V. harvey. Since V. harvey can be extracted from the environment, marine organisms and the digestive tract of healthy individuals, it is evident that there are different strains of the same bacterial species and it is necessary to define the differences between non- pathogenic and pathogenic strains

Identifikacija i MLVA genotipizacija vrste Chlamydia abortus iz slučajeva pobačaja malih preživača u Hrvatskoj

In addition to zoonotic potential, Chlamydia (C.) abortus is a very important bacterium causing serious disease in small ruminants. The main outcome of the disease is abortion in the late stages of pregnancy and the economic impact for farms is significant. During a three-year period (2015–2017), 191 vaginal swabs, 24 placentas, 210 foetal organs and 2 milk samples from small ruminant abortion cases were tested for C. abortus by real-time PCR. Positive samples were detected on eight sheep farms and two goat farms, with 8.4% of total samples testing positive samples. These samples were characterised using the MLVA method, and a single MLVA genotype (genotype [2]) was identified from sheep and goat samples, suggesting highly conserved C. abortus strains among the national flock. This study is the first description of C. abortus as a causative agent of abortion in goats in Croatia. More detailed study is required to recognize the epidemiological relevance of the abortion chlamydiosis. An open register of farms with defined health status should be established for each farm at the national level for better disease(s) control.Osim zoonotskog potencijala, vrsta Chlamydia (C.) abortus je vrlo važna bakterija koja može prouzročiti tešku bolest malih preživača. Dominantni klinički znak bolesti je pobačaj u kasnom stadiju graviditeta sa znatnim ekonomskim učinkom za farme. Tijekom trogodišnjeg razdoblja (2015.-2017.) metodom Real time (RT) PCR na C. abortus testiran je 191 vaginalni obrisak, 24 placente, 210 organa fetusa i 2 uzorka mlijeka iz slučajeva pobačaja malih preživača. Pozitivni uzorci ustvrđeni su u 8 farmi ovaca i 2 farme koza, što ukupno predstavlja 8,4 % pozitivnih uzoraka. Ovi uzorci su tipizirani metodom MLVA i identificiran je jedinstveni genotip MLVA (genotip [2]). Dobiveni rezultat ukazuje na visok stupanj podudarnosti sojeva C. abortus u nacionalnom stadu ovaca i koza. Ovo istraživanje prvi je opis vrste C. abortus kao uzročnika pobačaja u koza u Hrvatskoj. Temeljem ustvrđenog rezultata bilo bi uputno provesti daljnja, detaljnija istraživanja da bi se prepoznalo epidemiološko i ekonomsko značenje infekcija vrstom C. abortus. Radi kvalitetnijeg nadzora bolesti potrebno je uspostaviti otvoreni registar gospodarstava s definiranim zdravstvenim statusom za svaku pojedinu farmu

Učinkovitost sljedeće generacije sekvenciranja u dijagnostici bakterijskih zoonoza

Brucella, an extremely diverse but yet genetically highly homogenous genus of bacteria, has been a puzzle for scientists for many decades. These bacteria remain a prominent public health issue, particularly in the Balkan region. Correctly identifying and understanding the pathogen is a vital step in the epidemiology and epizootiology of any bacteria. Identification can be challenging, especially in the case of zoonotic species. This study aimed to implement fourth-generation sequencing in the typing of 11 Brucella suis strains kept in our archive and to compare this method to the classical and non-sequencing based molecular methods used to date. Classical biotyping is highly subjective and gave inconclusive results for 3 strains. Molecular methods used were multiplex PCR and RFLP methods since no one method can identify both species and biovar which is vital in the case of Brucella suis infections. Species and biovars of all the strains were successfully confirmed and in concordance with biotyping results. Oxford Nanopore long-read sequencing was used on a MinION device for next-generation sequencing (NGS). Various algorithms were implemented for genome assembly and BioNumerics 8.0 software was used for MLST identification and analysis. MLST 21 was used for biovar identification and epidemiological comparison of tested strains. The assembled genomes were 3,2 Mb in size and assembled into two chromosomes. MLST 21 analysis placed our strains into species and biovar clusters in concordance with other molecular tests used. To the extent of our knowledge, this is the first documented use of long-read sequencing in Brucella suis identification in this region. We conclude that bacteriological biotyping is outdated and host-specific identification in this genus is incorrect and that molecular characterisation is always the safer, faster and more suitable option. MinION sequencing proved to be a strong, accessible solution for species determination. Future study is required to determine how detailed genome information it can give, considering the error rate.Rod Brucella biološki je iznimno raznolik, ali genetski vrlo homogen rod bakterija te je već desetljećima znanstvenicima nepoznanica. Ove bakterije su veliki javno-zdravstveni problem, a osobito na Balkanu. Pravilno prepoznavanje i razumijevanje patogena ključan je korak u epidemiologiji i epizootiologiji bilo koje bakterijske vrste, čija identifikacija može biti izazovna, osobito u slučaju zoonotskih vrsta. Cilj je ovog rada bio implementirati sekvenciranje četvrte generacije u tipizaciji 11 sojeva Brucella suis koje se čuvaju u našoj arhivi te ovu metodu usporediti s klasičnim i molekularnim metodama koje se trenutačno primjenjuju, a ne zasnivaju se na sekvenciranju. Klasično je biotipiziranje vrlo subjektivno i dalo je podvojene rezultate za 3 soja. Od molekularnih metoda koristili smo višestruku lančanu reakciju polimerazom (engl. Polymerase Chain Reaction, PCR) i polimorfizam duljine restrikcijskih fragmenata (engl. Restriction Fragment Lenght Polymorphism, RFLP) budući da niti jedna od metoda ne može zasebno identificirati i vrstu i biovar, a što je važno u slučaju Brucella suis infekcije. Vrsta i biovar svih sojeva uspješno su potvrđene i u skladu s rezultatima biotipizacije. Sekvenciranje sljedeće generacije (engl. Next Generation Sequencing, NGS) provodili smo na Oxford Nanopore MinION uređaju koji sekvencira duge lance DNK. Za sastavljanje genoma rabljeni su različiti algoritmi, a za identifikaciju i analizu rezultata MLST-a korišten je softver BioNumerics 8.0. MLST 21 je korišten za identifikaciju biovara i epidemiološku usporedbu ispitivanih sojeva. Genomi su bili veličine 3,2 Mb i sastavljeni u dva kromosoma. Analiza MLST 21 smjestila je naše sojeve u vrsne i biovarne skupine u skladu s drugim korištenim molekularnim testovima. Koliko je nama poznato, ovo je prva dokumentirana uporaba sekvenciranja dugih lanaca DNK u identifikaciji Brucella suis u jugoistočnoj Europi. Zaključujemo da je bakteriološka biotipizacija zastarjela i da je identifikacija biovara u ovom rodu, ovisno o domaćinu, netočna te da je molekularna karakterizacija uvijek sigurnija, brža i prikladnija opcija. MinION sekvenciranje pokazalo se kao vrlo pristupačno rješenje za određivanje vrste i biovara Brucella suis. Daljnja su istraživanja potrebna da bi se ustvrdilo koliko detaljne informacije o genomu može dati, imajući u vidu značajniji postotak pogreške prilikom sekvenciranja

Reservoirs of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and their significance in the infection of animals and humans

Patogene mikobakterije imaju svoje domaćine, a većina njih i prirodne rezervoare u prirodi. Tuberkuloza prouzročena vrstom M. tuberculosis i dalje ostaje glavni uzročnik tuberkuloze u svijetu. M. bovis ima najrašireniji raspon prirodnih rezervoara od svih poznatih patogena. Različite vrste divljih životinja predstavljaju trajan rezervoar infekcije vrstom M. bovis za domaće životinje i ljude. U novije vrijeme otkrivene su i nove vrste mikobakterija (M. caprae, M. pinnipedii, M. mungi, M. orygis i M. suricattae) koje po svojim karakteristikama pripadaju u kompleks M. tuberculosis. Sve navedene vrste mikobakterija imaju svoje rezervoare u prirodi i kao zoonoze predstavljaju stalnu prijetnju za infekciju ljudi. M. leprae prouzroči lepru u ljudi. Dugo vremena se mislilo da je samo čovjek domaćin i rezervoar uzročnika. Danas je poznato da su prirodni rezervoari lepre devetopojasni pasanci (Dasypus novemcinctus) u SAD i Južnoj Americi, crvene vjeverice (Sciurus vulgaris) u Velikoj Britaniji i različite vrste majmuna u Africi i Aziji.Pathogenic micobacteria have their hosts and most also have natural reservoirs. Tuberculosis caused by M. tuberculosis remains the main cause of tuberculosis in the world. M. bovis has the widest natural reservoir range of all known pathogens. Different wildlife species represent a permanent reservoir of M. bovis infection for domestic animals and humans. New species of mycobacteria have recently been discovered (M. caprae, M. pinnipedii, M. mungi, M. orygis and M. suricattae) which by their characteristics belong to the M. tuberculosis complex. Each of these mycobacteria species have their own reservoirs in nature, and as zoonoses, present a constant threat to humans. M. leprae causes leprosy in humans. It was previously thought that only men were the host and reservoir of the causative agent. Today, it is well-known that natural reservoirs are nine banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) in the United States and South America, red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the United Kingdom and various types of monkeys in Africa and Asia

TUBERCULOUS AND NONTUBERCULOUS MYCOBACTERIA IN HUMAN AND ANIMAL INFECTION

Within the genus Mycobacterium (M.) more than 170 different types ofmycobacteria have been identified. In relation to humans, they are divided into threegroups. M. tuberculosis complex, which includes ten species that cause tuberculosisin mammals. The type of M. tuberculosis within M. tuberculosis complex remainsthe major cause of tuberculosis in humans in the world. Except for a long time knownspecies (M. bovis, M. africanum, M. microti, M. canetti, M. caprae), new membersof the group have recently been discovered. M. pinnipedii in seals, M. munghi inmongoose, M. orygis in arabian oryx and M. suricattae in the meerkat. The samecauses have been proven in people living nearby. M. leprae is the cause of theleprosy in humans. The disease has been proven in nine banded armadillos (Dasypusnovemcinctus) and represents the natural reservoir of M. leprae. The largest numberof mycobacteria (more than 160 species) belongs to nontuberculous mycobacteria.They are found in the environment, they are very resistant and adapted to growthand development, and to humans and animals are often exposed to them. Someare important potentially pathogenic species and they sometimes cause severepathological processes in humans and animals