A review on occurrence and spread of antibiotic resistance in wastewaters and in wastewater treatment plants: Mechanisms and perspectives

This paper reviews current knowledge on sources, spread and removal mechanisms of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in microbial communities of wastewaters, treatment plants and downstream recipients. Antibiotic is the most important tool to cure bacterial infections in humans and animals. The over- and misuse of antibiotics have played a major role in the development, spread, and prevalence of antibiotic resistance (AR) in the microbiomes of humans and animals, and microbial ecosystems worldwide. AR can be transferred and spread amongst bacteria via intra- and interspecies horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) receive wastewater containing an enormous variety of pollutants, including antibiotics, and chemicals from different sources. They contain large and diverse communities of microorganisms and provide a favorable environment for the spread and reproduction of AR. Existing WWTPs are not designed to remove micropollutants, antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and ARGs, which therefore remain present in the effluent. Studies have shown that raw and treated wastewaters carry a higher amount of ARB in comparison to surface water, and such reports have led to further studies on more advanced treatment processes. This review summarizes what is known about AR removal efficiencies of different wastewater treatment methods, and it shows the variations among different methods. Results vary, but the trend is that conventional activated sludge treatment, with aerobic and/or anaerobic reactors alone or in series, followed by advanced post treatment methods like UV, ozonation, and oxidation removes considerably more ARGs and ARB than activated sludge treatment alone. In addition to AR levels in treated wastewater, it examines AR levels in biosolids, settled by-product from wastewater treatment, and discusses AR removal efficiency of different biosolids treatment procedures. Finally, it puts forward key-points and suggestions for dealing with and preventing further increase of AR in WWTPs and other aquatic environments, together with a discussion on the use of mathematical models to quantify and simulate the spread of ARGs in WWTPs. Mathematical models already play a role in the analysis and development of WWTPs, but they do not consider AR and challenges remain before models can be used to reliably study the dynamics and reduction of AR in such systems.publishedVersio

Treatment of surfactants by advanced oxidation processes: Process optimization and toxicity analysis

Bu çalışma kapsamında, ülkemizde ve dünyada ticari olarak önem taşıyan tekstil ve kimya başta olmak üzere pek çok endüstride yoğun olarak kullanılan ve çevrede yarattıkları olumsuz etkilerden dolayı önem taşıyan noniyonik (nonil fenol etoksilat), anyonik (dioktil sülfosuksinat) ve katyonik (kuaterner amonyum etoksilat) türü yüzey aktif maddelerin (YAM) Foto-Fenton ve H2O2/UV-C ileri oksidasyon prosesleri ile arıtılabilirlikleri incelenmiştir. Yapılan ön arıtılabilirlik deneyleri sonucunda, incelenen fotokimyasal ileri oksidasyon proseslerinin yüzey aktif maddelerin arıtımı için uygun ve etkin olduğu saptanmıştır. Yüzey aktif maddelerin fotokimyasal arıtımı için seçilen H2O2/UV-C ileri oksidasyon prosesi Cevap Yüzey Yöntemi kullanılarak ana madde, KOİ ve TOK giderimleri açısından modellenip, optimize edilmiştir. H2O2/UV-C prosesi ile yapılan arıtılabilirlik çalışmalarında giriş KOİ değerinin, reaksiyon süresinin ve H2O2 konsantrasyonunun (proses bağımsız değişkenleri) ana madde, KOİ ve TOK giderim verimleri (proses çıktıları/bağımlı değişkenleri) üzerindeki etkileri araştırılmıştır. Yapılan deneysel tasarım çalışmaları sonucunda proses çıktılarını bağımsız değişkenler cinsinden tanımlayan ikinci dereceden eşitlikler türetilip geçerlilikleri istatistiksel araçlar kullanılarak sorgulanmıştır. Yüzey aktif maddelerin H2O2/UV-C prosesi ile ileri oksidasyonunun Cevap Yüzey Yöntemi ile yeterli hassasiyetle modellenebildiği sonucuna varılmıştır. Farklı giriş KOİ değerleri için optimize edilen reaksiyon koşullarında yürütülen fotokimyasal oksidasyon deney sonuçlarının model çıktıları ile uyum gösterdiği gözlenmiştir. Çalışmanın son aşamasında ise yüzey aktif maddelerin ve fotokimyasal oksidasyon ürünlerinin toksisiteleri aktif çamur inhibisyon testi ile belirlenmiştir. Deneysel çalışma sonuçları ışığında YAM içeren çözeltilerin heterotrofik biyokütle üzerindeki inhibisyon etkilerinin fotokimyasal arıtma ile çok yüksek oranda azaltıldığı ve oksidasyon süresi boyunca oluşan oksidasyon ara ve son ürünlerin toksik etkisinin olmadığı söylenebilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Anyonik, katyonik ve noniyonik yüzey aktif maddeler, H2O2/UV-C arıtımı, cevap yüzey yöntemi, optimizasyon, aktif çamur inhibisyonu.Surfactants are widely used in household detergents, personal care products, paints, inks, polymers, pesticide formulations, pharmaceuticals, mining, oil recovery, pulp and paper, tannery and textile industries. Due to their amphiphilic characteristics, surfactants tend to sorb and hence accumulate onto sludge and soil sediments thus imparting serious ecotoxicological risks in the environment. As a consequence, more effective and at the same time economically feasible treatment processes have to be applied to alleviate the chronic problem of surfactant accumulation in the aquatic ecosystems. Among different alternative treatment options, in particular chemical and photochemical advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have proven to be good candidates for the destructive treatment of surfactants. Response surface methodology (RSM) is a collection of statistical and mathematical techniques that are employed for the development, improvement and optimization of certain processes in which a response of interest is affected by several process variables and the objective is to optimize this response. RSM offers several advantages over classical experimental optimization methods in which a "one process variable at a time" approach. RSM provides more information from a relatively little number of experiments as compared with conventional optimization procedures, which is less expensive and time consuming. In particular, in more complex treatment systems such as photochemical advanced oxidation processes, interactive and synergistic effects are quite common making these applications ideal candidates for RSM. Considering the above mentioned facts, the present experimental study aimed at investigating the photochemical oxidation of commercially important anionic (a dioctyl sulfosuccinate), cationic (a quaternary ammonium ethoxylate) and nonionic (a nonyl phenol ethoxylate derivative) surfactant types. RSM-Central composite design (CCD) was used to analyze, model and optimize surfactant (parent compound, PC) and organic carbon (COD, TOC) removals during photochemical treatment. Two different experimental and statistical design matrices were developed for the assessment of both surfactants (parent compound) and their organic carbon content removals on the basis of treatment time. Process optimization was based on two photochemical treatment targets; (i) partial oxidation (for COD, TOC removals) to achieve complete parent pollutant abatement and (ii) full treatment for complete oxidation (mineralization) of aqueous surfactant solutions. The established polynomial regression models were validated by running separate experiments under photochemical oxidation conditions being previously optimized for different initial CODs. In the last stage of the study, separate experiments were run at the same local optima to examine the inhibitory effect of photochemical treatment of aqueous surfactant solutions on the oxygen uptake rate of activated sludge microorganisms. In the preliminary baseline experiments, rapid degradation of all studied textile surfactant solutions accompanied with high COD and TOC removals was observed. Surfactant abatements were complete within 15-20 min photochemical treatment, whereas over 90% COD and TOC removals could be achieved after prolonged oxidation periods for an initial surfactant COD of 450 mg/L and an initial pH of 10.5. The efficiency of the H2O2/UV-C process was appreciably influenced by all selected process outputs in the following decreasing order; photochemical treatment time (positive effect) > initial COD content of the surfactant formulation (negative effect) > initially added H2O2 concentration (positive effect, except for parent compound removals, that required low concentrations compared to organic carbon abatements). Analysis of variance revealed that the established factorial design models were statistically significant and described parent compound, COD and TOC removals at satisfactory levels. The highest correlation coefficients were obtained for TOC removals (surfactant mineralization rates). The established response surface models could be used to precisely optimize specific photochemical treatment targets for full and partial (pre-) treatment of different types of surfactants. The experimental design models were also capable of predicting advanced oxidation efficiencies at different photochemical treatment durations and varying initial CODs of the aqueous surfactant solutions. Activated sludge inhibition experiments conducted with heterotrophic biomass indicated that during the application of H2O2/UV-C treatment under optimized reaction conditions, no toxic oxidation products were formed. Keywords: Anionic, cationic and nonionic surfactants, H2O2/UV-C treatment, response surface methodology, optimization, activated sludge inhibition.

Model based process optimization of enhanced wastewater treatment plants

Avrupa Birliği’ne uyum sürecinde ele alınan atık sorunu kapsamında, alıcı ortamlara yapılacak deşarjlarda konvansiyonal parametrelerin yanısıra azot ve fosfor (besi maddesi) parametrelerinin de belli standart değerlerin altına indirilmesi gerekli hale gelmiştir. Bu nedenle, “Kentsel Atıksu Arıtımı Yönetmeliği, 2006” ile uyum sürecinde olan ülkemizde azot ve fosfor standartları mevzuatımıza dâhil edilmiştir. “Kentsel Atıksu Arıtımı Yönetmeliği, 2006” kapsamında mevcut tesislerin besi maddesi giderimine yönelik olarak geliştirilmesi, yeni kurulacak tesislerin ise besi maddesi giderecek şekilde en uygun arıtma teknolojisi kavramı çerçevesinde boyutlandırılması gereklidir. Besi maddesi giderimine yönelik en uygun arıtma teknolojisi biyolojik prosesler, bunlar arasında en ekonomik çözüm ise aktif çamur sistemleri olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu çalışma aktif çamur tesislerinin, Avrupa Birliği normlarında performansını sağlayabilecek optimum tasarım ve işletme süreçlerinin değerlendirilmesini amaçlamaktadır. Bu kapsamda, bir örnek olarak ele alınan İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi (İSKİ) Paşaköy İleri Biyolojik Atıksu Arıtma Tesisi’nde mevcut durumda atıksu karakterizasyonu ve sistem performansı deneysel olarak belirlenmiş, elde edilen bilgiler kullanılarak sürekli kullanıma uygun olacak model-bazlı tasarım ile işletme simülasyon programları hazırlanmış ve işletme optimizasyonu çerçevesinde çıkış besi maddesi konsantrasyonlarının düşürülmesi amacıyla işletme senaryoları oluşturularak önerilerde bulunulmuştur. Yürütülen senaryo analizleri ile, havalandırma tanklarındaki çözünmüş oksijen seviyelerinin uygun ayarlanması, tesisin geri devir denitrifikasyonu prensibi yerine A2O veya UCT tipi sistem şeklinde işletilmesi ile sistem veriminin arttırılabileceği ve dolayısıyla çıkış besi maddesi konsantrasyonlarının azaltılabileceği belirlenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: İleri biyolojik atıksu arıtma tesisi, atıksu karakterizasyonu, model-bazlı tasarım, işletme optimizasyonu.The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive published in the Official Gazette No. 26047 of 08.01.2006 was adapted from the “The Council Directive (91/271/EEC)” concerning urban waste-water treatment was accepted in European Union Countries, which imposes enforcements about the collection and treatment of wastewater. This directive requires that also nitrogen and phosphorus (nutrients) to be removed together with the conventional parameters. In this context, it is very important to follow and apply the technological advances while the harmonization of legislations in Turkey with European Union Standards. Mathematical models are frequently used for the design and optimum operation of wastewater treatment systems. In order to use the activated sludge models for the process design and control, it is crucial to understand the behavior of complex biological reactions under steady and dynamic conditions. The initial step for the use of models should be, a model calibration according to the data obtained from the treatment plant and an analysis of the behavior of the treatment plant under dynamic influent and environmental conditions (Vanrolleghem et al., 2003). After the calibration of the prepared model according to the operational conditions of the treatment plant, the model can be used for the optimization of the plant, meeting the effluent quality standards, minimizing operational costs and for developing appropriate process control strategies. On the other hand the effect of changes in the process conditions on the model stability should be taken into consideration (Insel et al., 2007). The aim of this study was to evaluate the optimum design and operational criteria of advanced biological wastewater treatment plants by applying international monitoring and evaluation mechanisms that will increase the performance to norms required in the European Union. Accordingly, İSKİ Paşaköy Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant (ABWWTP) was chosen as a model plant and in the first stage on influent wastewater characterization, chemical oxygen demand (COD) fractionation and performance of the activated sludge system were experimentally determined. In the second stage, using the dimensions of the İSKİ Paşaköy ABWWTP units and the experimentally determined operational parameters, model calibration studies were conducted. On this context, theoretical parameters of model-based design and operational simulation programs applied for the plant were evaluated. In the last stage of the study, for operational optimization, according to the results obtained from the experimental and simulation studies conducted at İSKİ Paşaköy ABWWTP, operational scenarios were developed and suggestions were made. In the scenario analysis reduction of effluent phosphorus and total nitrogen concentration was aimed and the effect of (i) the aeration system control, (ii) recycle denitrification (iii) influent VFA concentration was analyzed and the effect of (iv) different system configurations was evaluated. The results of statistical data analysis of wastewater characterization studies conducted at İSKİ Paşaköy Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant aiming nitrogen and phosphorus removal revealed that due to low influent Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN), Total Phosphorus (TP) and Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) concentrations, high efficiencies of biological phosphorus removal was not achievable. According to the scenario analysis performed for the treatment plant it has been concluded that it is possible to increase the removal efficiency of the system and achieve lower effluent total nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations by setting the dissolved oxygen levels to appropriate levels and operating the systems as an A2O or a UCT type system instead of a recycle denitrification system. It has been concluded that if the scenario analyses were applied it is not possible to meet the European Union Effluent Quality Standard of 1.0 mg/l for the phosphorus parameter. Experimental and model based studies have to be conducted for the installation of a fermentation process together with different system configurations that are required to meet the effluent quality standard by biological treatment. Keywords: Paşaköy wastewater treatment plant, wastewater characterization, model based optimization, process control

The effect of disinfectants and antiseptics on co- and cross-selection of resistance to antibiotics in aquatic environments and wastewater treatment plants

The outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic led to increased use of disinfectants and antiseptics (DAs), resulting in higher concentrations of these compounds in wastewaters, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and receiving water bodies. Their constant presence in water bodies may lead to development and acquisition of resistance against the DAs. In addition, they may also promote antibiotic resistance (AR) due to cross- and co-selection of AR among bacteria that are exposed to the DAs, which is a highly important issue with regards to human and environmental health. This review addresses this issue and provides an overview of DAs structure together with their modes of action against microorganisms. Relevant examples of the most effective treatment techniques to increase the DAs removal efficiency from wastewater are discussed. Moreover, insight on the resistance mechanisms to DAs and the mechanism of DAs enhancement of cross- and co-selection of ARs are presented. Furthermore, this review discusses the impact of DAs on resistance against antibiotics, the occurrence of DAs in aquatic systems, and DA removal mechanisms in WWTPs, which in principle serve as the final barrier before releasing these compounds into the receiving environment. By recognition of important research gaps, research needs to determine the impact of the majority of DAs in WWTPs and the consequences of their presence and spread of antibiotic resistance were identified