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Non-market valuation of the coastal environment - uniting political aims, ecological and economic knowledge

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires coastal water quality to be classified according to ecological indicators. In this paper, contingent valuation is used to estimate the value of improving the water quality status according to this classification, investigating if this type of holistic political-ecological measure can be related to and valued in monetary terms by the general public. A web-based survey was conducted in two study areas on the Swedish East and West coast. The paper focuses on eutrophication effects, such as bad water clarity, a decrease of bladder wrack stands and algae mats. These water quality elements affect recreational use of coastal areas. Relating to recreational use, two other environmental attributes are addressed – algae blooms and protection of marine areas in terms of e.g. restrictions for boat traffic. The restrictions scenario is also holistic in terms of several imposed restrictions, as well as tightly linked with existing policy. Conducting valuation studies based on a policy-determined measure is beneficial for decisionmakers but also for research e.g. in terms of data availability. It is concluded that these politically defined measures seem to work well as a basis for economic valuation. The respondents are in general both able to understand and to put a monetary value to the measures. This is an important first step, paving the ground for further studies. The monthly mean household WTP between the years 2010 – 2029 ranges from 61 to 108 SEK for improved water quality, from 54 to 84 SEK for less algae blooms and from 32 to 50 SEK for less noise and littering. Regarding noise and littering in archipelago areas in Northern Europe, this is to our knowledge the first WTP estimate that has been presented. The respondents from the East coast region express relatively high mean WTP values compared to the respondents on the West coast for all scenarios. The differences in mean WTP values between the study areas, which are reflected in the transfer errors, indicate that even though the coasts are similar in terms of use and environmental problems, and the respondents have many similar characteristics, a point estimate benefit transfer between the two coasts is not recommended unless high transfer errors are acceptable. WTP is affected by gender, membership of an NGO, whether or not the respondent has children, whether or not the respondent has a foreign background, frequency of visiting the area and whether or not the respondent uses a boat with an engine effect of more than 10 hp while visiting the area.non-market valuation; choice experiments; water framework directive

Horses’ (Equus caballus) behavioural response to warm respective cold bits : an experimental study

Bits of different varieties are hypothesized to have been used for horses for at least 4000 of the 6000 years of domestication. However, the focus of previous studies regarding bits have mainly been on physical injuries caused by pressure points, effects of different shapes and their influence on the horse. Limited focus has been put on the temperature of the bit and its impact, although this aspect affects many horses daily. The present study aimed to investigate and compare horses’ responses of both facial expressions and body language when being bridled with warm respective cold bits. The study was performed in April in Sweden with an air temperature of 5°C. It was performed on ten Icelandic horses and behaviours were divided into positive and negative expressions. Facial expressions and posture of the head were analyzed as proportion of time, while body languages and full eye blinks were analyzed as frequencies of observation occasions. The results suggested that the horses, on average, seemed to prefer warm bits of 35°C, roughly equivalent with the temperature of their mouth, over cold bits with a temperature of 6°C. This was reflected in a higher proportion of time correlated with positive behaviours when being bridled with a warm bit compared to a cold bit. The results also suggested that a cold bit was perceived as more uncomfortable than not being bridled, while a warm bit, and its connection to perceived discomfort between being bridled and not, was less clear. The effect of the bit temperature needs further investigation in future studies. Based on present study, one could speculate that horses might accept or like warmer bits more than cold bits. This could potentially affect initial responses to training and handling as evasive behaviours could be eliminated

Cholinergic system in sequelae of traumatic brain injury

Background: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most significant causes of disability and lowered capacity. TBI cause also a considerable financial burden since the majority of patients are young at the time of injury. Though much scientific work has been conducted, the pathophysiological mechanisms behind the sequelae of TBI are still largely unknown. However, there is evidence emerging from experimental and clinical studies that the cholinergic system seems to be at least partly involved in the cognitive impairment associated with TBI. In the TBI aftermath, patients commonly experience problems with attention, initiative and processing speed, i.e. functions which are mainly regulated by the cholinergic system. Additionally, in particular there are indications that the structures containing acetylcholinecontaining neurons are commonly injured in TBI. Furthermore, there is preliminary evidence that at least some TBI patients may benefit from cholinergic medication. Aims of the study: Our aim was to utilize positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to evaluate possible alterations in the cholinergic system after TBI. An additional goal was to clarify the association of these structural or functional changes to the patient’s response to cholinergic medication. Patients with moderate-to-severe TBI were compared to healthy controls with PET using the [11C]MP4A tracer. MP4A targets acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is the pre- and post-synaptic acetylcholine degrading enzyme. The TBI patient group was divided into two depending on their response to rivastigmine (inhibitor of AChE) treatment. These patient groups were imaged with MP4A-PET at baseline (without medication) and after 4 weeks of rivastigmine therapy to compare differences in AChE activity. Cholinergic structures were also investigated with atlas-based MRI morphometry. It was also examined whether the atrophy rates of frontal cholinergic structures were associated with neuropsychological tests results. The subjects filled in a questionnaire to determine whether their smoking histories had any connection to the outcome of TBI. Results: The AChE activity in TBI patients was clearly lowered in cortical regions when compared to controls. Most significantly, AChE activity was reduced in parieto- and occipital-cortices. A comparison of the two TBI patient groups in the primary time point scan showed evidence of lowered AChE activity in frontal cortical structures in rivastigmine responders. However, the inhibitory effect of rivastigmine on AChE activity was similar with patient groups when scanned during drug therapy and there was no longer any significant difference between groups in their AChE activities. MRI morphometry revealed that the higher the atrophy rate in frontal cortical structures, the poorer the performance in neuropsychological tests measuring attention. Smoking history was not associated with TBI outcome. Conclusions: According to the results of this study, it appears that the cholinergic system is altered chronically after TBI. It also seems that these structural alterations and the consequential functional changes in the cholinergic system are connected to the response to cholinergic medication. Additionally, the atrophy rate of frontal cortical structures, which are mainly innervated by cholinergic neurons, appears to have correlation to neuropsychological performance concerning attention. There did not seem to be any link between smoking and TBI outcome

Journal of the Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies Rules for Contributors

The construction of International Humanitarian Law and the norms regarding protection of prisoners of war have evolved as a reaction to the horrors of war. After September 11 and the following war on terrorism the notion of POWs has been widely debated. The USA holds prisoners at the navy base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba without granting them status as POWs; this thesis is placing the treatment of these detainees within a historical context. The norm concerning rights of POWs is today both internationalized and institutionalized, but that has not always been the case. This thesis illuminates how the norms have evolved during World War I, World War II and Vietnam War; finally the war against terrorism and the treatment of the prisoners at Guantánamo Bay is analyzed. The intention of the thesis is to use a historical overview of the evolution of IHL, and the rights of POWs in particular, to formulate a wider assumption about the implication of IHL in the war against terrorism and the future. The thesis adopts a theory which combines constructivism and John Rawls´ theory of justice and uses constructivist ideas about the nature of the international system applied to Rawls´ notion of justice. The constructivist theory and ontology are the basis of the theoretical framework of this thesis and Rawls´ definition of justice as the base of social institutions are viewed from a constructivist perspective. IHL and the norms regarding protection of POWs are thus considered as social facts, constructed and upheld through social interaction between states

Grading of parameters for urban tree inventories by city officials, arborists and academics using the Delphi method

Tree inventories are expensive to conduct and update, so every inventory carried out must be maximized. However, increasing the number of constituent parameters increases the cost of performing and updating the inventory, illustrating the need for careful parameter selection. This paper reports the results of a systematic expert rating of tree inventories aiming to quantify the relative importance of each parameter. Using the Delphi method, panels comprising city officials, arborists and academics rated a total of 148 parameters. In order of total mean score, the top ranking parameters, which can serve as a guide for decision-making at practical level and for standardization of tree inventories, were: Scientific name of the tree species and genera, Vitality, Coordinates, Hazard class and Identification number. The study also examined whether the different responsibilities and usage of urban tree databases among organizations and people engaged in urban tree inventories affected their prioritization. The results revealed noticeable dissimilarities in the ranking of parameters between the panels, underlining the need for collaboration between the research community and those commissioning, administrating and conducting inventories. Only by applying such a transdisciplinary approach to parameter selection can urban tree inventories be strengthened and made more relevant