Unwanted knowledge transmission

John Greco (2020) sets out to create a unified virtue-theoretic account of knowledge generation and transmission in his book The Transmission of Knowledge. One of the advantages of his view is that it can defend the achievement view from a known strand of counterexamples. To accomplish that, he relies on joint agency being essential to knowledge transmission. Joint agency can be characterized as a sort of interdependent and interactive cooperation between speaker and hearer that share an intention to transmit knowledge. This paper introduces the phenomenon of unwanted knowledge transmission which shows that joint agency, as Greco presents it, is not essential to knowledge transmission. Four types of unwanted knowledge transmissions will be introduced that pose threats to Greco’s account by showing that shared intention, a key characteristic of joint agency, is not present in all instances of knowledge transmission. Finally, some potential ways to defend Greco’s view will be considered and discussed

Disease associations with monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance can only be evaluated using screened cohorts : results from the population-based iStopMM study

Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is an asymptomatic precursor condition that precedes multiple myeloma and related disorders but has also been associated with other medical conditions. Since systematic screening is not recommended, MGUS is typically diagnosed due to underlying diseases and most cases are not diagnosed. Most previous studies on MGUS disease associations have been based on clinical cohorts, possibly resulting in selection bias. Here we estimate this selection bias by comparing clinically diagnosed and screened individuals with MGUS with regards to demographics, laboratory features, and comorbidities. A total of 75,422 participants in the Iceland Screens, Treats, or Prevents Multiple Myeloma (iStopMM) study were screened for MGUS by serum protein electrophoresis, immunofixation and free light chain assay (clinicaltrials gov. Identifier: NCT03327597). We identified 3,352 individuals with MGUS, whereof 240 had previously been clinically diagnosed (clinical MGUS), and crosslinked our data with large, nationwide registries for information on comorbidities. Those with clinical MGUS were more likely to have at least one comorbidity (odds ratio=2.24; 95% confidence interval: 1.30-4.19), and on average had more comorbidities than the screened MGUS group (3.23 vs. 2.36, mean difference 0.68; 95% confidence interval: 0.46-0.90). They were also more likely to have rheumatological disease, neurological disease, chronic kidney disease, liver disease, heart failure, or endocrine disorders. These findings indicate that individuals with clinical MGUS have more comorbidities than the general MGUS population and that previous studies have been affected by significant selection bias. Our findings highlight the importance of screening data when studying biological and epidemiological implications of MGUS.Peer reviewe

Defining new reference intervals for serum free light chains in individuals with chronic kidney disease : Results of the iStopMM study

Publisher Copyright: © 2022. The Author(s). © 2022. The Author(s).Serum free light chain (FLC) concentration is greatly affected by kidney function. Using a large prospective population-based cohort, we aimed to establish a reference interval for FLCs in persons with chronic kidney disease (CKD). A total of 75422 participants of the iStopMM study were screened with serum FLC, serum protein electrophoresis and immunofixation. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated from serum creatinine. Central 99% reference intervals were determined, and 95% confidence intervals calculated. Included were 6461 (12%) participants with measured FLCs, eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, not receiving renal replacement therapy, and without evidence of monoclonality. Using current reference intervals, 60% and 21% had kappa and lambda FLC values outside the normal range. The FLC ratio was outside standard reference interval (0.26-1.65) in 9% of participants and outside current kidney reference interval (0.37-3.10) in 0.7%. New reference intervals for FLC and FLC ratio were established. New reference intervals for the FLC ratio were 0.46-2.62, 0.48-3.38, and 0.54-3.30 for eGFR 45-59, 30-44, and < 30 mL/min/1.73 m2 groups, respectively. The crude prevalence of LC-MGUS in CKD patients was 0.5%. We conclude that current reference intervals for FLC and FLC ratio are inaccurate in CKD patients and propose new eGFR based reference intervals to be implemented.Peer reviewe

Iceland screens, treats, or prevents multiple myeloma (iStopMM): a population-based screening study for monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance and randomized controlled trial of follow-up strategies.

To access publisher's full text version of this article, please click on the hyperlink in Additional Links field or click on the hyperlink at the top of the page marked DownloadMonoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) precedes multiple myeloma (MM). Population-based screening for MGUS could identify candidates for early treatment in MM. Here we describe the Iceland Screens, Treats, or Prevents Multiple Myeloma study (iStopMM), the first population-based screening study for MGUS including a randomized trial of follow-up strategies. Icelandic residents born before 1976 were offered participation. Blood samples are collected alongside blood sampling in the Icelandic healthcare system. Participants with MGUS are randomized to three study arms. Arm 1 is not contacted, arm 2 follows current guidelines, and arm 3 follows a more intensive strategy. Participants who progress are offered early treatment. Samples are collected longitudinally from arms 2 and 3 for the study biobank. All participants repeatedly answer questionnaires on various exposures and outcomes including quality of life and psychiatric health. National registries on health are cross-linked to all participants. Of the 148,704 individuals in the target population, 80 759 (54.3%) provided informed consent for participation. With a very high participation rate, the data from the iStopMM study will answer important questions on MGUS, including potentials harms and benefits of screening. The study can lead to a paradigm shift in MM therapy towards screening and early therapy.Black Swan Research Initiative by the International Myeloma Foundation Icelandic Centre for Research European Research Council (ERC) University of Iceland Landspitali University Hospita

SUSTAIN drilling at Surtsey volcano, Iceland, tracks hydrothermal and microbiological interactions in basalt 50 years after eruption

The 2017 Surtsey Underwater volcanic System for Thermophiles, Alteration processes and INnovative concretes (SUSTAIN) drilling project at Surtsey volcano, sponsored in part by the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP), provides precise observations of the hydrothermal, geochemical, geomagnetic, and microbiological changes that have occurred in basaltic tephra and minor intrusions since explosive and effusive eruptions produced the oceanic island in 1963–1967. Two vertically cored boreholes, to 152 and 192 m below the surface, were drilled using filtered, UV-sterilized seawater circulating fluid to minimize microbial contamination. These cores parallel a 181 m core drilled in 1979. Introductory investigations indicate changes in material properties and whole-rock compositions over the past 38 years. A Surtsey subsurface observatory installed to 181 m in one vertical borehole holds incubation experiments that monitor in situ mineralogical and microbial alteration processes at 25–124 ∘C. A third cored borehole, inclined 55∘ in a 264∘ azimuthal direction to 354 m measured depth, provides further insights into eruption processes, including the presence of a diatreme that extends at least 100 m into the seafloor beneath the Surtur crater. The SUSTAIN project provides the first time-lapse drilling record into a very young oceanic basaltic volcano over a range of temperatures, 25–141 ∘C from 1979 to 2017, and subaerial and submarine hydrothermal fluid compositions. Rigorous procedures undertaken during the drilling operation protected the sensitive environment of the Surtsey Natural Preserve

Addison-sjúkdómur á Íslandi, algengi, meðferð og tíðni annarra sjúkdóma hjá þessum sjúklingahóp

Inngangur: Sjúkdómur Addisons (Mb. Addison) er sjaldgæfur sjúkdómur sem m.a. veldur skorti á barksterum í líkamanum. Það ástand er lífshættulegt án meðferðar, enda getur þá líkaminn ekki brugðist við auknu álagi. Fyrri rannsóknir hafa sýnt að meginorsök þessa sjúkdóms hefur breyst frá því honum var fyrst lýst, frá berklum yfir í sjálfnæmi. Rannsóknir benda til að algengi sjúkdómsins sé á bilinu 39-140 á hverja milljón. Þegar sjúkdómurinn er ómeðhöndlaður eru blóðgildi kortisóls mikið lækkuð og blóðgildi nýrilbarkarvaka (ACTH) mikið hækkuð. Þá eru blóðgildi kalíums oft hækkuð og natríums lækkuð. Greining Mb. Addison fæst með blóðprufum og er staðfest með Synacthen-prófi og mótefnamælingum. Meðferð við Mb. Addison miðar að því að bæta sjúklingum upp skortinn á barksterum. Í upphafi voru jafnan gefnir langvirkir sterar, en nýrri rannsóknir ráðleggja meðferð með skammvirku kortisoni í nokkrum dagsskömmtum, til að líkja eftir náttúrulegu ferli blóðstyrks kortisóls. Þekkt er að tilvist eins sjálfnæmissjúkdóms eykur líkur á tilvist annars. Loks hefur verið sýnt fram á að sjúklingar með Mb. Addison hafa hærri dánartíðni en almennt þýði. Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að kanna algengi Mb. Addison, skoða hvaða meðferð sjúklingarnir fá, og kanna hvaða aðrir sjúkdómar eru algengir í þessum hópi. Efniviður og aðferðir: Rannsóknin var þverskurðarrannsókn og náði til allra þeirra sem eru í eftirliti vegna Mb. Addison á Íslandi. Þýði rannsóknarinnar voru allir núlifandi Íslendingar, 18 ára og eldri. Gagna var aflað úr sjúkraskrám LSH og FSA, auk þess sem upplýsinga var aflað frá þeim sjálfstætt starfandi innkirtla- og efnaskiptalæknum sem sinna fullorðnum sjúklingum. Leitað var að þeim sem fengið höfðu greiningarnúmerið E27 skv. ICD-10. Sjúklingar með síðkomnar nýrilbarkarbilanir voru útilokaðir. Niðurstöður: 53 einstaklingar fundust með frumkomna nýrilbarkarbilun. Meðferð var með skammvirkum barksterum hjá 79% sjúklinganna og langvirkum barksterum, hjá 15%. Þá fengu 81% aldósterónuppbót með flúdrókortisóni. Kortisóluppbótarmeðferðar var ekki getið hjá 4% sjúklinga. Auk Mb. Addison reyndust 21 (40%) hafa skjaldvakabrest, 9 (17%) höfðu háþrýsting, 7 (13%) höfðu fengið krabbamein, 6 (11%) höfðu asma, 5 (9%) höfðu B-12 skort, 5 (9%) voru þunglyndir, 4 (8%) höfðu sykursýki af tegund 1. Ályktun: Rannsóknin bendir til að Mb. Addison sé algengari en talið var. Tíðast er að meðferð sjúkdómsins sé með skammvirkum sykursterum, sem gefa þarf í nokkrum dagsskömmtum. Sjúkdómar tengdir innkirtlum eða ónæmiskerfi eru algengir í sjúklingum með Mb. Addison.Fyrirhugað er að birta niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar í erlendu vísindatímariti, og er óskað eftir að verkefnið sé læst í ár, þar sem erlend vísindatímarit taka ekki greinar til birtingar sem hafa birst annars staðar

Is Bitcoin money? An analysis from the Austrian school of economic thought

This thesis aims to explore whether digital crypto-currencies such as Bitcoin can be considered money from the perspective of the Austrian school of economics. It begins by describing the functions and design of the Bitcoin system in detail. Other innovations that either build on or improve Bitcoin will be explained as well. The functions of money are then defined from the origins of money, providing a categorical approach toward a comparison between Bitcoin and incumbent money. The risks and complications of Bitcoin will be discussed in this thesis with an emphasis on the role of policymakers. One of the main reasons why Bitcoin has yet to be regarded as money in a traditional narrow sense is the barrier generated by network effects, in particular, the presence of excess inertia. Other risks and complications that are present within the context of this thesis will also be discussed. A significant part of the criticism of Bitcoin as a medium of exchange that comes from the Austrian school arises because Bitcoin does not seem to follow the regression theorem Mises put forth to explain the emergence of money. An attempt will be made to reform the regression theorem so it accounts for digital innovations such as Bitcoin, if proven unsuccessful, another perspective is offered in which Bitcoin does not violate the theorem. When the complication of the regression theorem is solved, it is possible to address whether Bitcoin is money or just a secondary medium of exchange. From an Austrian perspective, Bitcoin is not money, however, an argument will be made that Bitcoin is an imperfect form of memory, one which fits somewhere in between commodity money and fiat money, a synthetic commodity money. The possibility of Bitcoin substitutes to incite an expansion of the money supply will also be analysed from an Austrian perspective. Subject: Regression theorem, Bitcoin, Austrian economics, Synthetic commodity money, Network effect

A Social Credit View of Knowledge

We feel a sense of accomplishment when we get to the bottom of something. It seems that we get this feeling from satisfying our deep-rooted curiosity; our desire to discover the truth. When we arrive at the truth about something by accident, this feeling of having achieved something dissipates. Our intuition tells us that it is not as desirable to have justified beliefs that are accidentally true as having justified beliefs that are true because we used our reliable cognitive abilities to form them. This suggests that we care about something besides truth itself; we care about how we arrive at it. However, when we act on our beliefs, it turns out that in practice it does not matter at all how our true belief was formed; just that they are true. When there is a discrepancy between what our intuition is telling us and what the world around us is showing us, we sense that something is amiss. How can we possibly resolve this discrepancy? Some virtue epistemologists have presented a credit view of knowledge, which offers a promising solution to our predicament. This view of knowledge has been criticized heavily, particularly by using specific cases involving testimony. The proponents of the credit view of knowledge have tried to defend it against these criticisms, but their attempts have not been entirely successful. I will introduce a new social credit view of knowledge that can both handle testimony-based criticisms and help us mediate the conflict between our intuition and reality by providing a potential answer to the question: Why is it better to know something than to have a mere true belief about it?Almennt leitumst við eftir því að vita hvað er satt, og hvað ekki. Það er eitthvað innra með okkur sem drífur okkur í átt að sannleikanum og þegar við lærum eitthvað nýtt þá líður okkur eins og við höfum afrekað eitthvað. Hins vegar virðist þetta ekki alltaf eiga við; til dæmis þegar við komumst að sannleikanum fyrir slysni. Innsæið segir okkur að það sé ekki jafn eftirsóknarvert að hafa réttlættar skoðanir sem eru óvart sannar eins og að hafa réttlættar skoðanir sem eru sannar vegna þess að við beittum hæfileikum okkar við myndun þeirra. Þetta bendir til þess að okkur sé annt um meira en bara sannleikann; við viljum komast að sannleikanum á réttan hátt. Ef vel er að gáð kemur þó í ljós að í praxís, þegar kemur að því að framkvæma eitthvað út frá skoðunum okkar, þá skiptir engu máli hvernig það kom til að skoðun okkar var sönn. Þegar við upplifum þetta misræmi á milli þess hvað innsæið segir okkur og hvað raunveruleikinn sýnir okkur þá blossar upp sú tilfinning að ekki sé allt með felldu. En hvað er hægt að gera? Innan dyggðaþekkingarfræði er að finna afrekskenningu (e. credit view of knowledge), sem segir að einstaklingur sem viti eitthvað af réttum ástæðum hafi afrekað eitthvað, og eigi því skilið lof fyrir. Ef þessi kenning reynist rétt er möguleiki á því að samræma innsæi og raunveruleika og því er til mikils að vinna. Sú hugmynd að þekking eigi að vera skilin sem lofsvert afrek einstaklings er þó umdeild, og hefur verið gagnrýnd harðlega vegna þess að hún virðist ekki ganga upp í dæmum sem innihalda vitnisburð. Margar leiðir hafa verið farnar til að verja afrekskenninguna en engin þeirra hefur náð að kveða niður gagnrýnisraddir. Ég mun kynna til sögunnar nýja félagslega afrekskenningu sem getur bæði svarað því hvers vegna okkur finnst þekking vera meira virði en sönn skoðun og varist þeirri gagnrýni sem fellt hefur aðrar afrekskenningar um þekkingu

Ef öll þekking er byggð á reynslu, getur hún verið nauðsynleg?

This thesis is meant to examine whether there is an impossibility of non-empirically known truths. An attempt will be made to show that both analytic truths and a priori knowledge is inherently either empirical or meaningless. From that notion, a framework of a posteriori knowledge will be used to determine whether it is possible to know what constitutes as necessary knowledge. Epistemic luck will be shown to interfere with the justification of empirical truths and furthermore, that Gettier examples deny the equivalence of justified true beliefs as knowledge. A Kripkean notion will be applied to demonstrate the existence of necessary a posteriori truths, although it is impossible to know whether a posteriori truths are necessary or not. Finally, contextualism will be employed to argue against the high standard of knowledge that skepticism introduces. The conclusion is that within a framework of empiricism, there is a possibility of necessary a posteriori truths, even when using the high standard of knowledge the skeptical account introduces. It is however, impossible to know which truths are necessary and which are contingent. From there, a pragmatic account is used to conclude that there are only contingent truths. However, there is also a low standard of knowledge, which is introduced with the aid of contextualism, which can be used effectively to say that it is possible to know things in casual relations, although skeptical contexts that employ a high standard of knowledge still exist

Samvinna kennara og þroskaþjálfa : hvernig fer samvinna kennara og þroskaþjálfa fram í skólum án aðgreiningar?

Í þessari rannsóknarritgerð könnum við samvinnu kennara og þroskaþjálfa í skólum án aðgreiningar. Verkefnið er viðtalsrannsókn og við munum byggja hana á upplifun þroskaþjálfa og kennara í grunnskólum. Tveir þroskaþjálfarar og tveir kennarar úr sitthvorum skólanum svara spurningum um samvinnu þeirra sem stuðlar að skóla án aðgreiningar. Markmiðið með þessu verkefni er að athuga hvernig samvinnan á milli þessara fagstétta sé í skólum án aðgreiningar hér á Íslandi. Niðurstöður verkefnisins eru sú að kennarar og þroskaþjálfar eru almennt ánægðir með samstarf sitt og nýverið hefur samstarf þeirra færst í aukana. Fagstéttirnar hafa það að sameiginlegu markmiði að efla nemendur til þess að ná sem mestum námsárangri