36 research outputs found
Localisation in wireless sensor networks for disaster recovery and rescuing in built environments
A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of PhilosophyProgress in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and radio frequency (RF) technology has fostered the development of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Different from traditional networks, WSNs are data-centric, self-configuring and self-healing. Although WSNs have been successfully applied in built environments (e.g. security and services in smart homes), their applications and benefits have not been fully explored in areas such as disaster recovery and rescuing. There are issues related to self-localisation as well as practical constraints to be taken into account.
The current state-of-the art communication technologies used in disaster scenarios are challenged by various limitations (e.g. the uncertainty of RSS). Localisation in WSNs (location sensing) is a challenging problem, especially in disaster environments and there is a need for technological developments in order to cater to disaster conditions. This research seeks to design and develop novel localisation algorithms using WSNs to overcome the limitations in existing techniques. A novel probabilistic fuzzy logic based range-free localisation algorithm (PFRL) is devised to solve localisation problems for WSNs. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm performs better than other range free localisation algorithms (namely DVhop localisation, Centroid localisation and Amorphous localisation) in terms of localisation accuracy by 15-30% with various numbers of anchors and degrees of radio propagation irregularity.
In disaster scenarios, for example, if WSNs are applied to sense fire hazards in building, wireless sensor nodes will be equipped on different floors. To this end, PFRL has been extended to solve sensor localisation problems in 3D space. Computational results show that the 3D localisation algorithm provides better localisation accuracy when varying the system parameters with different communication/deployment models. PFRL is further developed by applying dynamic distance measurement updates among the moving sensors in a disaster environment. Simulation results indicate that the new method scales very well
Recommended from our members
Wireless indoor localisation within the 5G internet of radio light
This thesis was submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy and was awarded by Brunel University LondonNumerous applications can be enhanced by accurate and efficient indoor localisation using wireless
sensor networks, however trade-offs often exist between these two parameters. In this thesis, realworld
and simulation data is used to examine the hybrid millimeter wave and Visible Light
Communications (VLC) architecture of the 5G Internet of Radio Light (IoRL) Horizon 2020 project.
Consequently, relevant localisation challenges within Visible Light Positioning (VLP) and asynchronous
sampling networks are identified, and more accurate and efficient solutions are developed.
Currently, VLP relies strongly on the assumed Lambertian properties of light sources.
However, in practice, not all lights are Lambertian. To support the widespread deployment of VLC
technology in numerous environments, measurements from non-Lambertian sources are analysed to
provide new insights into the limitations of existing VLP techniques. Subsequently, a novel VLP
calibration technique is proposed, and results indicate a 59% accuracy improvement against existing
methods. This solution enables high accuracy centimetre level VLP to be achieved with non-
Lambertian sources.
Asynchronous sampling of range-based measurements is known to impact localisation
performance negatively. Various Asynchronous Sampling Localisation Techniques (ASLT) exist to
mitigate these effects. While effective at improving positioning performance, the exact suitability of
such solutions is not evident due to their additional processes, subsequent complexity, and increased
costs. As such, extensive simulations are conducted to study the effectiveness of ASLT under variable
sampling latencies, sensor measurement noise, and target trajectories. Findings highlight the
computational demand of existing ASLT and motivate the development of a novel solution. The
proposed Kalman Extrapolated Least Squares (KELS) method achieves optimal localisation
performance with a significant energy reduction of over 50% when compared to current leading ASLT.
The work in this thesis demonstrates both the capability for high performance VLP from non-
Lambertian sources as well as the potential for energy efficient localisation for sequentially sampled
range measurements.Horizon 202
Recommended from our members
Efficient opportunistic routing in dense mobile networks
The usage of smartphones is nowadays ubiquitous. Their simultaneous support for longand short-range communication has enabled the deployment of opportunistic, device-todevice networks, which exploit human mobility to enable and facilitate communication and content exchange among peer devices. Devices connect to each other without human intervention, potentially with the assistance of the cellular network provider. The underlying network topology constantly changes, depending on the mobility patterns of the participating mobile devices. Mobile devices support various technologies for discovering their location; GPS is very accurate but it works only outdoors and is power-hungry, whereas location discovery based on nearby announced SSIDs and/or the current cell ID is less accurate but power-friendly. Indoor localisation is much more challenging; approaches that are based on inertial sensors and dead reckoning, along with deployed beacons and pre-calculated signal strength maps have been proposed.
In this thesis, we develop GeoHawk, a routing protocol for dense mobile networks that support opportunistic communication and content dissemination among mobile devices in crowded events.
The driving use case has been the Grand Mosque, the largest mosque in the world located at the heart of the city of Makkah in Saudi Arabia. During the Ramadan and Hajj, viii the Grand Mosque can get extremely crowded, with anticipated number of visitors close to 2.5 million, after the current expansion work is completed.
The proposed protocol incorporates a novel distributed localisation technique that can be used in conjunction with the protocol, when GPS is not available. GeoHawk deals with the very high density of users/devices by heavily aggregating routing information using Bloom filters. Identifiers of mobile devices that reside within specific geographical regions are disseminated in the network in the form of Bloom filters. Said geographical regions are dynamically created and destroyed; their size evolves to reflect the uncertainty in the topology, due to mobility and potential inaccuracies of the underlying location estimation mechanism. Bloom filters are also decayed to reflect information ageing. Devices exchange routing information with their neighbours and announce aggregated information (i.e. Bloom filters) in messages that propagate towards specific directions and reach distant areas of the opportunistic network. Data is then disseminated (and replicated through a simple but efficient ticketing mechanism) towards directions where the information about the existence of the destination node is stronger. Upon reaching the best-known region for the destination node, a message is either flooded, if the belief that the node resides in the region is strong (as indicated by a belief threshold), or, in the opposite case, redirected to a randomly selected region. The distributed localisation algorithm is a novel synthesis of existing techniques, including Pedestrian Dead Reckoning, estimated location sharing and particle filtering. Our approach can provide reasonable errors in the estimation, which allow the routing protocol to effectively deliver messages to destination nodes.
We evaluate GeoHawk using extensive experimentation in the ONE simulator. We have developed mobility models that approximate the user behaviour in the targeted use ix cases and communication environments. We have experimented with a large variety of configuration parameters that affect the behaviour of the proposed protocol and recorded its performance in terms of message delivery ratio and latency as well as induced network overhead. We show that the GeoHawkâs performance is superior to baseline protocols, namely Epidemic, PRoPHET and WSR
Privacy in location-based services
WĂ€hrend der letzten Jahre erfuhren mobile GerĂ€te durch grössere Speicher, der Entwicklung schnellerer Prozessoren und höherer Ăbertragungsraten, um nur einige der wichtigsten Performanceparameter zu nennen, einen enormen Entwicklungsschub. Gleichzeitig sind die unterschiedlichen Positionierungssysteme mittlerweile ausgereift und klein genug, um in mobile GerĂ€te verbaut werden zu können. Erst durch die Möglichkeit der ZusammenfĂŒhrung von solchen ausgereiften Positionierungs- mit existierenden Telekommunikationstechnologien kann die Basis fĂŒr eine neue Generation kontextsensitiver Anwendungen und entsprechender Geschaeftsmodelle geschaffen werden.
Abgesehen von den technischen Massnahmen die zum Schutz gegen Attacken, Verfaelschungen und Missbrauch sensitiver Daten eingesetzt werden, mĂŒssen diese auch allen rechtlichen Aspekten und Rahmenbedingungen von Telekommunikationssystemen entsprechen. In diesem Sinne muss das Ziel von Forschungen im Bereich neuer kontext-sensitiver Systeme und Anwendungen die mit Positionsdaten operieren der Schutz der Privatheit jedes einzelnen Nutzers sein. Diese Dissertation beginnt mit einer Diskussion ĂŒber verschiedene Aspekte von Location-Based Systemen. Es werden weiters unterschiedliche Anforderungen aufgezeigt deren ErfĂŒllung notwendig sind, um flexible Systeme anbieten zu können und die zudem den Schutz der Privatheit der Nutzer garantieren können. Der wohl wichtigste Beitrag dazu ist ein Mechanismus der auf dem Begriff des Pseudonyms basiert.Dieses Verfahren garantiert maximale Sicherheit und Schutz der Privatheit der Benutzer wĂ€hrend der Nutzung von Diensten. Der zweite Beitrag der Dissertation ist eine Telekom Service Architektur die den erwĂ€hnten Pseudonym-basierten Mechanismus integriert. Durch Einbeziehen dedizierter Dienste von Telekommunikationsanbietern bildet diese Architektur die Basis fĂŒr die Realisierung neuer GeschĂ€ftsmodelle und ermöglicht die Implementierung des pay-as-you-go Konzeptes. Dieses ermöglicht Kunden anonym mobile Dienste von Drittanbietern zu konsumieren, Ă€hnlich dem anonymen Kauf von GĂŒtern mit realem Geld. Schliesslich wird mit der Implementierung einer Service Platform sowohl die Funktionsweise des Pseudonym Mechanismus sowie die Interaktionen der in der System Architektur vorgesehenen Dienste und Komponenten die zur Realisierung von Location-Based Anwendungen benötigt werden demonstriert.During the last years the development of mobile devices has gained significant progress with respect to memory capabilities, advanced processing power and higher transfer rates to name only a few performance parameters. At the same time eclectic positioning and localization technologies are meanwhile mature enough to be integrated into mobile devices. Not until positioning, localization and telecommunication technologies can be combined, seamlessly the basis for the proliferation of a new generation of context-aware applications and business models can be build. In this respect, location and position information foster novel future context-awareapplications. But, if this information is in the wrong hands such applications may by the same token pose severe threat. Therefore, apart from technical means against attacks, forgery and misuse of sensitive user information the interaction of all these systems must comply with legal requirements that precisely prescribe all aspects of telecommunication systems. In this spirit, the main research ob jective addressed for the design of new context- aware and location-based systems must be the protection of the userâs privacy. This dissertation discusses first various aspects of location-based systems and out of it the various needs that have to be addressed to be able to provide flexible location-based services to mobile users by preserving privacy. The main contribution of this work is a mechanism that is based on the notion of pseudonyms. The use of this kind of pseudonyms provides maximum security and privacy for users during communication. The second contribution is a telecommunication service architecture that is tightly coupled with the pseudonym mechanism. It allows new business models to be applied by leveraging the use of some services of the telcosâ infrastructure. This service application further allows the implementation of the so called pay-as-you-go concept. This allows customers to anonymously consume mobile services that are offered by third party application providers similarly to buying physical goods with cash. Finally, we demonstrate the implementation of a service platform that allows us to illustrate the operation of the pseudonym mechanism and the interworking of the system architectureâs components that are tailored for the realization of location-based applications
Recommended from our members
Mobile depth sensing technology and algorithms with application to occupational therapy healthcare
This thesis was submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy and was awarded by Brunel University LondonThe UK government is striving to shift its current healthcare delivery model from clini-cianâoriented services, to that of patient and selfâcareâoriented intervention strategies. It seeks to do so through Information Communication (ICT) and Computer Mediated Re-ality Technologies (CMRT) as a key strategy to overcome the everâincreasing scarcity of healthcare resources and costs. To this end, in the UK the use of paperâbased information systems have exhibited their limitations in providing apposite care. At the national level, The Royal College of Occupational Therapists (RCOT) identify home visits and modifica-tions as key levers in a multifactorial health programme to evaluate interventions for older people with a history of falling or are identified as being prone to falling. Prescribing Assistive Equipment (AE) is one such mechanism that seeks to reduce the risk of falling whilst promoting the continued independence of physical dexterity and mobility in older adults at home. In the UK, the yearly cost of falls is estimated at ÂŁ2.3 billion. Further evidence places a 30% to 60% abandonment rate on prescribed AE by and large due to a âpoor fitâ and measurement inaccuracies.
To remain aligned with the national strategy, and assist in the eradication of measurement inaccuracies, this thesis employs Mobile Depth Sensing and Motion Track-ing Devices (MDSMTDs) to assist OTs in in the process of digitally measuring the extrin-sic fallârisk factors for the provision of AE. The quintessential component in this assess-ment lies in the measurement of fittings and furniture items in the home. To digitise and aid in this process, the artefact presented in this thesis employs stereo computerâvision and camera calibration algorithms to extract edges in 3D space. It modifies the SobelâFeldman convolution filter by reducing the magnitude response and employs the camera intrinsic parameters as a mechanism to calculate the distortion matrix for interpolation between the edges and the 3D point cloud. Further Augmented Reality User Experience (AR-UX) facets are provided to digitise current state of the art clinical guidance and over-lay its instructions onto the real world (i.e., 3D space).
Empirical mixed methods assessment revealed that in terms of accuracy, the arte-fact exhibited enhanced performance gains over current paperâbased guidance. In terms of accuracy consistency, the artefact can rectify measurement consistency inaccuracies, but there are still a wide range of factors that can influence the integrity of the point-cloud in respect of the deviceâs point-of-view, holding positions and measurement speed. To this end, OTs usability, and adoption preferences materialise in favour of the artefact. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that MDSMTDs are a promising alterna-tive to existing paperâbased measurement practices as OTs appear to prefer the digitalâbased system and that they can take measurements more efficiently and accurately
Routage et gestion de la mobilité dans les réseaux personnels
L'objectif de cette thÚse est d'étudier des méthodes et des stratégies efficaces pour le routage et la gestion de la mobilité dans le cadre des réseaux personnels. Dans un premier temps, nous proposons le cadre de nos études: Personal Ubiquitous Environments (PUE). Un PUE est constitué d'un ensemble d'utilisateurs ayant des terminaux disposant d'interfaces réseau hétérogÚnes, et dont l'objectif est de mettre en oeuvre des mécanismes de coopération et de partage des ressources de maniÚre totalement distribuée. Dans ce cadre, la thÚse a proposé des solutions innovantes contribuant à améliorer la communication inter et intra réseau personnels. La premiÚre contribution porte sur le protocole PNRP (Personal Network Routing Protocol) dont le but est de développer un routage à base de politiques (policy-based routing) pour les environnements personnels. La seconde, intitulée ADD (Adaptive Distributed gateway Discovery), est un mécanisme totalement distribué pour la découverte de multiples chemins vers une passerelle vers un réseau opéré. De plus, étant donné que ces environnements sont hétérogÚnes par leurs compositions (réseaux d'accÚs, terminaux ...), une architecture de gestion de la mobilité qui permet une gestion unifiée de la localisation et de la mobilité sans coutures appliquant lénsemble des noeuds a également été traitée. Les résultats d'évaluation par simulation démontrent l'applicabilité et léfficacité des ces protocoles.The aim of this thesis is to investigate methods and strategies for efficient routing and mobility management in personal environments. The concept of Personal Ubiquitous Environments (PUE) is introduced which accommodates heterogeneous devices and access networks of different users and sustain the notion of sharing resources in a distributed manner. A prerequisite for achieving the resource (devices, networks) sharing in personal environments is the deployment of suitable communication protocols which establish efficient multi-hop routes betweens the devices of the PUE. Personal Network Routing Protocol (PNRP) has been developed to perform policy-based routing in personal environments. Moreover, in certain personal networking scenarios, the infrastructure network components (i.e. gateways) are more than one-hop distance from the user's devices; Adaptive Distributed gateway Discovery (ADD) protocol is thereby proposed to efficiently discover the multi-hop routes towards the gateway in a totally distributed manner. All the more, since the personal environments regroups heterogeneous access networks, an efficient mobility management architecture is proposed which offers unified location management and seamless handover experience to dynamic personal nodes. The proposed protocols are assessed by means of numerous communication scenarios; the simulation results demonstrate the applicability of the proposed protocols
Keyframe Tagging: Unambiguous Content Delivery for Augmented Reality Environments
Context: When considering the use of Augmented Reality to provide navigation cues in a completely unknown environment, the content must be delivered into the environment with a repeatable level of accuracy such that the navigation cues can be understood and interpreted correctly by the user.
Aims: This thesis aims to investigate whether a still image based reconstruction of an Augmented Reality environment can be used to develop a content delivery system that providers a repeatable level of accuracy for content placement. It will also investigate whether manipulation of the properties of a Spatial Marker object is sufficient to reduce object selection ambiguity in an Augmented Reality environment.
Methods: A series of experiments were conducted to test the separate aspects of these aims. Participants were required to use the developed Keyframe Tagging tool to introduce virtual navigation markers into an Augmented Reality environment, and also to identify objects within an Augmented Reality environment that was signposted using different Virtual Spatial Markers. This tested the accuracy and repeatability of content placement of the approach, while also testing participantsâ ability to reliably interpret virtual signposts within an Augmented Reality environment. Finally the Keyframe Tagging tool was tested by an expert user against a pre-existing solution to evaluate the time savings offered by this approach against the overall accuracy of content placement.
Results: The average accuracy score for content placement across 20 participants was 64%, categorised as âGoodâ when compared with an expert benchmark result, while no tags were considered âincorrectâ and only 8 from 200 tags were considered to have âPoorâ accuracy, supporting the Keyframe Tagging approach. In terms of object identification from virtual cues, some of the predicted cognitive links between virtual marker property and target object did not surface, though participants reliably identified the correct objects across several trials.
Conclusions: This thesis has demonstrated that accurate content delivery can be achieved through the use of a still image based reconstruction of an Augmented Reality environment. By using the Keyframe Tagging approach, content can be placed quickly and with a sufficient level of accuracy to demonstrate its utility in the scenarios outlined within this thesis. There are some observable limitations to the approach, which are discussed with the proposals for further work in this area
Algorithmes de localisation distribués en intérieur pour les réseaux sans fil avec la technologie IEEE 802.15.4
The Internet of Things is finally blooming through diverse applications, from home automation and monitoring to health tracking and quantified-self movement. Consumers deploy more and more low-rate and low-power connected devices that provide complex services. In this scenario, positioning these intelligent objects in their environment is necessary to provide geo-localized services, as well as to optimize the network operation. However, indoor positioning of devices using only their radio interface is still very imprecise. Indoor wireless localization techniques often deduce from the Radio frequency (RF) signal attenuation the distances that separate a mobile node from a set of reference points called landmarks. The received signal strength indicator (RSSI), which reflects this attenuation, is known in the literature to be inaccurate and unreliable when it comes to distance estimation, due to the complexity of indoor radio propagation (shadowing, multi-path fading). However, it is the only metric that will certainly be available in small and inexpensive smart objects. In this thesis, we therefore seek algorithmic solutions to the following problem: is it possible to achieve a fair localization using only the RSSI readings provided by low-quality hardware? To this extent, we first study the behavior of the RSSI, as reported by real hardware like IEEE 802.15.4 sensor nodes, in several indoor environments with different sizes and configurations , including a large scale wireless sensor network. Such experimental results confirm that the relationship between RSSI and distance depends on many factors; even the battery pack attached to the devices increases attenuation. In a second step, we demonstrate that the classical log-normal shadowing propagation model is not well adapted in indoor case, because of the RSSI values dispersion and its lack of obvious correlation with distance. We propose to correct the observed inconsistencies by developing algorithms to filter irrelevant samples. Such correction is performed by biasing the classical log-normal shadowing model to take into account the effects of multipath propagation. These heuristics significantly improved RSSI-based indoor localization accuracy results. We also introduce an RSSI-based positioning approach that uses a maximum likelihood estimator conjointly with a statistical model based on machine learning. In a third step, we propose an accurate distributed and cooperative RSSI-based localization algorithm that refines the set of positions estimated by a wireless node. This algorithm is composed of two on-line steps: a local update of positionÂżs set based on stochastic gradient descent on each new RSSI measurement at each sensor node. Then an asynchronous communication step allowing each sensor node to merge their common local estimates and obtain the agreement of the refined estimated positions. Such consensus approach is based on both a distributed local gradient step and a pairwise gossip protocol. This enables each sensor node to refine its initial estimated position as well as to build a local map of itself and its neighboring nodes. The proposed algorithm is compared to multilateration, Multi Dimensional Scaling (i.e. MDS) with modern majorization problem and classical MDS. Simulation as well as experimental results obtained on real testbeds lead to a centimeter-level accuracy. Both landmarks and blind nodes communicate in the way that the data processing and computation are performed by each sensor node without any central computation point, tedious calibration or intervention from a human.LÂżinternet des objets se dĂ©veloppe Ă travers diverses applications telles que la domotique, la surveillance Ă domicile, etc. Les consommateurs sÂżintĂ©ressent Ă ces applications dont les objets interagissent avec des dispositifs de plus en plus petits et connectĂ©s. La localisation est une information clĂ© pour plusieurs services ainsi que pour lÂżoptimisation du fonctionnement du rĂ©seau. En environnement intĂ©rieur ou confinĂ©, elle a fait lÂżobjet de nombreuses Ă©tudes. Cependant, lÂżobtention dÂżune bonne prĂ©cision de localisation demeure une question difficile, non rĂ©solue. Cette thĂšse Ă©tudie le problĂšme de la localisation en environnement intĂ©rieur appliquĂ© aux rĂ©seaux sans fil avec lÂżutilisation unique de lÂżattĂ©nuation du signal. LÂżattĂ©nuation est mesurĂ©e par lÂżindicateur de lÂżintensitĂ© du signal reçu (RSSI). Le RSSI est connu dans la littĂ©rature comme Ă©tant imprĂ©cis et peu fiable en ce qui concerne lÂżestimation de la distance, du fait de la complexitĂ© de la propagation radio en intĂ©rieur : il sÂżagit des multiples trajets, le shadowing, le fading. Cependant, il est la seule mĂ©trique directement mesurable par les petits objets communicants et intelligents. Dans nos travaux, nous avons amĂ©liorĂ© la prĂ©cision des mesures du RSSI pour les rendre applicables Ă lÂżenvironnement interne dans le but dÂżobtenir une meilleure localisation. Nous nous sommes Ă©galement intĂ©ressĂ©s Ă lÂżimplĂ©mentation et au dĂ©ploiement de solutions algorithmiques relatifs au problĂšme suivant : est-il possible dÂżobtenir une meilleure prĂ©cision de la localisation en utilisant uniquement les mesures de RSSI fournies par les nÂżuds capteurs sans fil IEEE 802.15.4 ? Dans cette perspective, nous avons dÂżabord Ă©tudiĂ© le comportement du RSSI dans plusieurs environnements intĂ©rieurs de diffĂ©rentes tailles et selon plusieurs configurations , y compris un rĂ©seau de capteurs sans fil Ă grande Ă©chelle (SensLAB). Pour expliquer les rĂ©sultats des mesures, nous avons caractĂ©risĂ© les objets communicants que nous utilisons, les nÂżuds capteurs Moteiv TMote Sky, par une sĂ©rie dÂżexpĂ©riences en chambre anĂ©choĂŻque. Les rĂ©sultats expĂ©rimentaux confirment que la relation entre le RSSI et la distance dĂ©pend de nombreux facteurs mĂȘme si la batterie intĂ©grĂ©e Ă chaque nÂżud capteur produit une attĂ©nuation. Ensuite, nous avons dĂ©montrĂ© que le modĂšle de propagation log-normal shadowing nÂżest pas adaptĂ© en intĂ©rieur, en raison de la dispersion des valeurs de RSSI et du fait que celles-ci ne sont pas toujours dĂ©pendantes de la distance. Ces valeurs devraient ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ©es sĂ©parĂ©ment en fonction de lÂżemplacement de chaque nÂżud capteur Ă©metteur. Nous avons proposĂ© des heuristiques pour corriger ces incohĂ©rences observĂ©es Ă savoir les effets de la propagation par trajets multiples et les valeurs aberrantes. Nos rĂ©sultats expĂ©rimentaux ont confirmĂ© que nos algorithmes amĂ©liorent significativement la prĂ©cision de localisation en intĂ©rieur avec lÂżutilisation unique du RSSI. Enfin, nous avons Ă©tudiĂ© et proposĂ© un algorithme de localisation distribuĂ©, prĂ©cis et coopĂ©ratif qui passe Ă l¿échelle et peu consommateur en termes de temps de calcul. Cet algorithme dÂżapproximation stochastique utilise la technique du RSSI tout en respectant les caractĂ©ristiques de lÂżinformatique embarquĂ©e des rĂ©seaux de capteurs sans fil. Il affine lÂżensemble des positions estimĂ©es par un nÂżud capteur sans fil. Notre approche a Ă©tĂ© comparĂ©e Ă dÂżautres algorithmes distribuĂ©s de l¿état de lÂżart. Les rĂ©sultats issus des simulations et des expĂ©riences en environnements internes rĂ©els ont rĂ©vĂ©lĂ© une meilleure prĂ©cision de la localisation de notre algorithme distribuĂ©. LÂżerreur de localisation est de lÂżordre du centimĂštre sans aucun nÂżud ou unitĂ© centrale de traitement, ni de calibration fastidieuse ni dÂżintervention humaine