16 research outputs found

    Validation of MODIS and GEOV1 fPAR Products in a Boreal Forest Site in Finland

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    Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)Remote sensing of the fraction of absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (fPAR) has become a timely option to monitor forest productivity. However, only a few studies have had ground reference fPAR datasets containing both forest canopy and understory fPAR from boreal forests for the validation of satellite products. The aim of this paper was to assess the performance of two currently available satellite-based fPAR products: MODIS fPAR (MOD15A2, C5) and GEOV1 fPAR (g2_BIOPAR_FAPAR), as well as an NDVI-fPAR relationship applied to the MODIS surface reflectance product and a Landsat 8 image, in a boreal forest site in Finland. Our study area covered 16 km(2) and field data were collected from 307 forest plots. For all plots, we obtained both forest canopy fPAR and understory fPAR. The ground reference total fPAR agreed better with GEOV1 fPAR than with MODIS fPAR, which showed much more temporal variation during the peak-season than GEOV1 fPAR. At the chosen intercomparison date in peak growing season, MODIS NDVI based fPAR estimates were similar to GEOV1 fPAR, and produced on average 0.01 fPAR units smaller fPAR estimates than ground reference total fPAR. MODIS fPAR and Landsat 8 NDVI based fPAR estimates were similar to forest canopy fPAR.Peer reviewe

    Evaluation of MODIS LAI/FPAR product Collection 6. Part 2: Validation and intercomparison

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    The aim of this paper is to assess the latest version of the MODIS LAI/FPAR product (MOD15A2H), namely Collection 6 (C6). We comprehensively evaluate this product through three approaches: validation with field measurements, intercomparison with other LAI/FPAR products and comparison with climate variables. Comparisons between ground measurements and C6, as well as C5 LAI/FPAR indicate: (1) MODIS LAI is closer to true LAI than effective LAI; (2) the C6 product is considerably better than C5 with RMSE decreasing from 0.80 down to 0.66; (3) both C5 and C6 products overestimate FPAR over sparsely-vegetated areas. Intercomparisons with three existing global LAI/FPAR products (GLASS, CYCLOPES and GEOV1) are carried out at site, continental and global scales. MODIS and GLASS (CYCLOPES and GEOV1) agree better with each other. This is expected because the surface reflectances, from which these products were derived, were obtained from the same instrument. Considering all biome types, the RMSE of LAI (FPAR) derived from any two products ranges between 0.36 (0.05) and 0.56 (0.09). Temporal comparisons over seven sites for the 2001–2004 period indicate that all products properly capture the seasonality in different biomes, except evergreen broadleaf forests, where infrequent observations due to cloud contamination induce unrealistic variations. Thirteen years of C6 LAI, temperature and precipitation time series data are used to assess the degree of correspondence between their variations. The statistically-significant associations between C6 LAI and climate variables indicate that C6 LAI has the potential to provide reliable biophysical information about the land surface when diagnosing climate-driven vegetation responses.Help from MODIS and VIIRS Science team members is gratefully acknowledged. This work is supported by the MODIS program of NASA and partially funded by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2013CB733402) and the key program of NSFC (Grant No. 41331171). Kai Yan gives thanks for the scholarship from the China Scholarship Council. (MODIS program of NASA; 2013CB733402 - National Basic Research Program of China; 41331171 - NSFC; China Scholarship Council

    Boreaalisen metsÀn lehtialaindeksin ja sen sitoman fotosynteettisesti aktiivisen sÀteilyn arviointi

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    The aim of this dissertation is to assess the accuracy of different ground reference methods used to validate satellite based leaf area index (LAI) and the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (fPAR) products. LAI and fPAR are strongly linked, although they principally and practically measure different properties: LAI quantifies the areal interphase between soil and atmosphere, whereas fPAR quantifies the energy available for photosynthesis. Until now, the development of remote sensing based methods to estimate LAI and fPAR in a boreal forest has been hindered by the scarcity of ground data, which is required to validate and develop existing algorithms. The aim of the first part of this dissertation was to assess the impacts of different methodological approaches to estimate LAI in boreal forests, and to validate satellite based LAI products. Results showed that the accuracy of ground based LAI estimates is sensitive to both the retrieval methods and sampling scheme used to collect the optical LAI data. The satellite based measurements of LAI demonstrated a large temporal variability in LAI. The second part of the dissertation focused on measuring and modeling fPAR in a boreal forest. A new scheme for measuring and modeling ground reference fPAR based on photon recollision probability was presented in this dissertation. Ground reference fPAR is usually estimated only for the forest canopy layer. This study is among the first ones to validate the new global satellite based fPAR product called GEOV1 using data of both the forest canopy and understory layers from boreal forests. Results showed that satellite based fPAR products may correspond better with the total fPAR, instead of only the forest canopy fPAR as has often been presumed.TÀmÀn vÀitöskirjan tarkoituksena oli kehittÀÀ LAI:n ja fPAR:in maastomittausmenetelmiÀ ja arvioida nykyisten satelliittipohjaisten LAI- ja fPAR-tuotteiden toimivuutta boreaalisissa metsissÀ. Lehtialaindeksi (leaf area index, LAI) kuvaa lehtien toispuolista pinta-alaa maapinta-alaa kohden (m2/m2). Akronyymi fPAR on lyhennelmÀ sanoista fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) ja se kuvaa kasvillisuuden kykyÀ sitoa auringosta saapuvaa sÀteilyÀ. fPAR mÀÀrÀytyy LAI:n ja auringon kulman perusteella. LAI:ta ja fPAR:ia voidaan arvioida avaruudesta tehtÀvÀllÀ kaukokartoituksella ja mielenkiinnon kohteena voi olla esimerkiksi globaali ympÀristön seuranta. TÀllÀ hetkellÀ kaukokartoitusmenetelmien kehittymistÀ hidastaa maastoaineistojen puute, sillÀ maastoaineistot ovat vÀlttÀmÀttömiÀ mallien tarkkuuden arvioinnissa. Koska LAI on yksi tÀrkeimpiÀ fPAR:iin vaikuttavia muuttujia, vÀitöskirjan ensimmÀinen osio keskittyi LAI:n maastomittausmenetelmien tarkkuuden arviointiin. EnsimmÀisen osan tarkoituksena oli selvittÀÀ, kuinka erilaiset LAI:n arviointitavat ja otanta-asetelmat toimivat boreaalisissa metsissÀ. Satelliitista mitattujen LAI-arvojen kelpoisuutta arvioitiin vertaamalla niitÀ maastossa mitattuihin arvoihin. Tulosten mukaan erilaiset LAI:n arviointitavat tuottavat systemaattisesti poikkeavia arvioita ja arvioiden tarkkuus riippuu paitsi kÀytetystÀ menetelmÀstÀ, myös maastomittausten otanta-asetelmasta. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin, ettÀ satelliitista mitattuihin LAI-arvoihin sisÀltyy paljon ajallista ja paikallista vaihtelua, joka johtuu osin satelliitin mittaaman signaalin saturoitumisesta. VÀitöskirjan toinen osa keskittyi fPAR:in mittaamiseen ja mallintamiseen. Tutkimuksen aluksi esiteltiin uusi fPAR-malli, joka soveltuu laajojen alueiden fPAR-arviointiin. Mallin toimivuutta arvioitiin vertaamalla mitattuja ja mallinnettuja fPAR-arvoja toisiinsa. fPAR-mallin todettiin toimivan hyvin. TÀmÀn jÀlkeen tutkittiin, kuinka hyvin nykyiset satelliittimittauksiin perustuvat fPAR-tuotteet vastaavat maastomittauksiin perustuvaa fPARia. YleensÀ satelliittituotteiden toimivuutta arvioitaessa on keskitytty vain metsÀn latvuskerroksen sitoman sÀteilymÀÀrÀn arviointiin, mutta tÀssÀ tutkimuksessa huomioitiin myös aluskasvillisuuden sitoma sÀteily. Tulokset osoittivat, ettÀ satelliittimittauksiin perustuva fPAR voi vastata paremmin metsikön latvuksen ja aluskasvillisuuden yhteenlaskettua fPAR:ia kuin pelkÀn latvuskerroksen fPAR:ia

    Validation of PROBA-V GEOV1 and MODIS C5 & C6 fAPAR Products in a Deciduous Beech Forest Site in Italy

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    [EN] The availability of new fAPAR satellite products requires simultaneous efforts in validation to provide users with a better comprehension of product performance and evaluation of uncertainties. This study aimed to validate three fAPAR satellite products, GEOV1, MODIS C5, and MODIS C6,against ground references to determine to what extent the GCOS requirements on accuracy (maximum 10% or 5%) can be met in a deciduous beech forest site in a gently and variably sloped mountain site. Three ground reference fAPAR, differing for temporal (continuous or campaign mode) and spatial sampling (single points or Elementary Sampling UnitsÂżESUs), were collected using different devices: (1) Apogee (defined as benchmark in this study); (2) PASTIS; and (3) Digital cameras for collecting hemispherical photographs (DHP). A bottom-up approach for the upscaling process was used in the present study. Radiometric values of decametric images (Landsat-8) were extracted over the ESUs and used to develop empirical transfer functions for upscaling the ground measurements. The resulting high-resolution ground-based maps were aggregated to the spatial resolution of the satellite product to be validated considering the equivalent point spread function of the satellite sensors, and a correlation analysis was performed to accomplish the accuracy assessment. PASTIS sensors showed good performance as fAPARPASTIS appropriately followed the seasonal trends depicted by fAPARAPOGEE (benchmark) (R2 = 0.84; RMSE = 0.01). Despite small dissimilarities, mainly attributed to different sampling schemes and errors in DHP classification process, the agreement between fAPARPASTIS and fAPARDHP was noticeable considering all the differences between both approaches. The temporal courses of the three satellite products were found to be consistent with both Apogee and PASTIS, except at the end of the summer season when ground data were more affected by senescent leaves, with both MODIS C5 and C6 displaying larger short-term variability due to their shorter temporal composite period. MODIS C5 and C6 retrievals were obtained with the backup algorithm in most cases. The three green fAPAR satellite products under study showed good agreement with ground-based maps of canopy fAPAR at 10 h, with RMSE values lower than 0.06, very low systematic differences, and more than 85% of the pixels within GCOS requirements. Among them, GEOV1 fAPAR showed up to 98% of the points lying within the GCOS requirements, and slightly lower values (mean bias = Âż0.02) as compared with the ground canopy fAPAR, which is expected to be only slightly higher than green fAPAR in the peak season.The ground data collection was partially funded by the FP7 ImagineS project (FP7-SPACE-2012-311766) and the dataset acquired is available online (http://www.fp7-imagines.eu/). We thank the project H2020 Ecopotential (grant agreement No. 641762) for financial support on the site activities.Nestola, E.; SĂĄnchez-Zapero, J.; Latorre-Sanchez, C.; Mazzenga, F.; Matteucci, G.; Calfapietra, C.; Camacho, F. (2017). Validation of PROBA-V GEOV1 and MODIS C5 & C6 fAPAR Products in a Deciduous Beech Forest Site in Italy. Remote Sensing. 9(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs90201269

    Evaluation of MODIS LAI/FPAR product Collection 6. Part 1: consistency and improvements

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    As the latest version of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FPAR) products, Collection 6 (C6) has been distributed since August 2015. This collection is evaluated in this two-part series with the goal of assessing product accuracy, uncertainty and consistency with the previous version. In this first paper, we compare C6 (MOD15A2H) with Collection 5 (C5) to check for consistency and discuss the scale effects associated with changing spatial resolution between the two collections and benefits from improvements to algorithm inputs. Compared with C5, C6 benefits from two improved inputs: (1) L2G–lite surface reflectance at 500 m resolution in place of reflectance at 1 km resolution; and (2) new multi-year land-cover product at 500 m resolution in place of the 1 km static land-cover product. Global and seasonal comparison between C5 and C6 indicates good continuity and consistency for all biome types. Moreover, inter-annual LAI anomalies at the regional scale from C5 and C6 agree well. The proportion of main radiative transfer algorithm retrievals in C6 increased slightly in most biome types, notably including a 17% improvement in evergreen broadleaf forests. With same biome input, the mean RMSE of LAI and FPAR between C5 and C6 at global scale are 0.29 and 0.091, respectively, but biome type disagreement worsens the consistency (LAI: 0.39, FPAR: 0.102). By quantifying the impact of input changes, we find that the improvements of both land-cover and reflectance products improve LAI/FPAR products. Moreover, we find that spatial scale effects due to a resolution change from 1 km to 500 m do not cause any significant differences.Help from MODIS & VIIRS Science team members is gratefully acknowledged. This work is supported by the MODIS program of NASA and partially funded by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2013CB733402), the key program of NSFC (Grant No. 41331171) and Chinese Scholarship Council. (MODIS program of NASA; 2013CB733402 - National Basic Research Program of China; 41331171 - NSFC; Chinese Scholarship Council

    Assessing uncertainties of in situ FAPAR measurements across different forest ecosystems

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    Carbon balances are important for understanding global climate change. Assessing such balances on a local scale depends on accurate measurements of material flows to calculate the productivity of the ecosystem. The productivity of the Earth's biosphere, in turn, depends on the ability of plants to absorb sunlight and assimilate biomass. Over the past decades, numerous Earth observation missions from satellites have created new opportunities to derive so-called “essential climate variables” (ECVs), including important variables of the terrestrial biosphere, that can be used to assess the productivity of our Earth's system. One of these ECVs is the “fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation” (FAPAR) which is needed to calculate the global carbon balance. FAPAR relates the available photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the wavelength range between 400 and 700 nm to the absorption of plants and thus quantifies the status and temporal development of vegetation. In order to ensure accurate datasets of global FAPAR, the UN/WMO institution “Global Climate Observing System” (GCOS) declared an accuracy target of 10% (or 0.05) as acceptable for FAPAR products. Since current satellite derived FAPAR products still fail to meet this accuracy target, especially in forest ecosystems, in situ FAPAR measurements are needed to validate FAPAR products and improve them in the future. However, it is known that in situ FAPAR measurements can be affected by significant systematic as well as statistical errors (i.e., “bias”) depending on the choice of measurement method and prevailing environmental conditions. So far, uncertainties of in situ FAPAR have been reproduced theoretically in simulations with radiation transfer models (RTMs), but the findings have been validated neither in field experiments nor in different forest ecosystems. However, an uncertainty assessment of FAPAR in field experiments is essential to develop practicable measurement protocols. This work investigates the accuracy of in situ FAPAR measurements and sources of uncertainties based on multi-year, 10-minute PAR measurements with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) at three sites on three continents to represent different forest ecosystems: a mixed spruce forest at the site “Graswang” in Southern Germany, a boreal deciduous forest at the site “Peace River” in Northern Alberta, Canada and a tropical dry forest (TDF) at the site “Santa Rosa”, Costa Rica. The main statements of the research results achieved in this thesis are briefly summarized below: Uncertainties of instantaneous FAPAR in forest ecosystems can be assessed with Wireless Sensor Networks and additional meteorological and phenological observations. In this thesis, two methods for a FAPAR bias assessment have been developed. First, for assessing the bias of the so-called two-flux FAPAR estimate, the difference between FAPAR acquired under diffuse light conditions and two-flux FAPAR acquired during clear-sky conditions can be investigated. Therefore, measurements of incoming and transmitted PAR are required to calculate the two-flux FAPAR estimate as well as observations of the ratio of diffuse-to-total incident radiation. Second, to assess the bias of not only the two- but also the three-flux FAPAR estimate, four-flux FAPAR observations must be carried out, i.e. measurements of top-of-canopy (TOC) PAR albedo and PAR albedo of the forest background. Then, to quantify the bias of the two and three-flux estimate, the difference with the four-flux estimate can be calculated. Main sources of uncertainty of in situ FAPAR measurements are high solar zenith angle, occurrence of colored leaves and increased wind speed. At all sites, FAPAR observations exhibited considerable seasonal variability due to the phenological development of the forests (Graswang: 0.89 to 0.99 ±0.02; Peace River: 0.55 to 0.87 ±0.03; Santa Rosa: 0.45 to 0.97 ±0.06). Under certain environmental conditions, FAPAR was affected by systemic errors, i.e. bias that go beyond phenologically explainable fluctuations. The in situ observations confirmed a significant overestimation of FAPAR by up to 0.06 at solar zenith angles above 60° and by up to 0.05 under the occurrence of colored leaves of deciduous trees. The results confirm theoretical findings from radiation transfer simulations, which could now for the first time be quantified under field conditions. As a new finding, the influence of wind speed could be shown, which was particularly evident at the boreal location with a significant bias of FAPAR values at wind speeds above 5 ms-1. The uncertainties of the two-flux FAPAR estimate are acceptable under typical summer conditions. Three-flux or four-flux FAPAR measurements do not necessarily increase the accuracy of the estimate. The highest average relative bias of different FAPAR estimates were 2.1% in Graswang, 8.4% in Peace River and -4.5% in Santa Rosa. Thus, the GCOS accuracy threshold of 10% set by the GCOS was generally not exceeded. The two-flux FAPAR estimate was only found to be biased during high wind speeds, as changes in the TOC PAR albedo are not considered in two-flux FAPAR measurements. Under typical summer conditions, i.e. low wind speed, small solar zenith angle and green leaves, two-flux FAPAR measurements can be recommended for the validation of satellite-based FAPAR products. Based on the results obtained, it must be emphasized that the three-flux FAPAR estimate, which has often been preferred in previous studies, is not necessarily more accurate, which was particularly evident in the tropical location. The discrepancies between ground measurements and the current Sentinel-2 FAPAR product still largely exceed the GCOS target accuracy at the respective study sites, even when considering uncertainties of FAPAR ground measurements. It was found that the Sentinel-2 (S2) FAPAR product systematically underestimated the ground observations at all three study sites (i.e. negative values for the mean relative bias in percent). The highest agreement was observed at the boreal site Peace River with a mean relative deviation of -13% (RÂČ=0.67). At Graswang and Santa Rosa, the mean relative deviations were -20% (RÂČ=0.68) and -25% (RÂČ=0.26), respectively. It was argued that these high discrepancies resulted from both the generic nature of the algorithm and the higher ecosystem complexity of the sites Graswang and Santa Rosa. It was also found that the temporal aggregation method of FAPAR ground data should be well considered for comparison with the S2 FAPAR product, which refers to daily averages, as overestimation of FAPAR during high solar zenith angles could distort validation results. However, considering uncertainties of ground measurements, the S2 FAPAR product met the GCOS accuracy requirements only at the boreal study site. Overall, it has been shown that the S2 FAPAR product is already well suited to assess the temporal variability of FAPAR, but due to the low accuracy of the absolute values, the possibilities to feed global production efficiency models and evaluate global carbon balances are currently limited. The accuracy of satellite derived FAPAR depends on the complexity of the observed forest ecosystem. The highest agreement between satellite derived FAPAR product and ground measurements, both in terms of absolute values and spatial variability, was achieved at the boreal site, where the complexity of the ecosystem is lowest considering forest structure variables and species richness. These results have been elaborated and presented in three publications that are at the center of this cumulative thesis. In sum, this work closes a knowledge gap by displaying the interplay of different environmental conditions on the accuracy of situ FAPAR measurements. Since the uncertainties of FAPAR are now quantifiable under field conditions, they should also be considered in future validation studies. In this context, the practical recommendations for the implementation of ground observations given in this thesis can be used to prepare sampling protocols, which are urgently needed to validate and improve global satellite derived FAPAR observations in the future.Projektionen zukĂŒnftiger Kohlenstoffbilanzen sind wichtig fĂŒr das VerstĂ€ndnis des globalen Klimawandels und sind auf genaue Messungen von StoffflĂŒssen zur Berechnung der ProduktivitĂ€t des Erdökosystems angewiesen. Die ProduktivitĂ€t der BiosphĂ€re unserer Erde wiederum ist abhĂ€ngig von der Eigenschaft von Pflanzen, Sonnenlicht zu absorbieren und Biomasse zu assimilieren. Über die letzten Jahrzehnte haben zahlreiche Erdbeobachtungsmissionen von Satelliten neue Möglichkeiten geschaffen, sogenannte „essentielle Klimavariablen“ (ECVs), darunter auch wichtige Variablen der terrestrischen BiosphĂ€re, aus Satellitendaten abzuleiten, mit deren Hilfe man die ProduktivitĂ€t unseres Erdsystems computergestĂŒtzt berechnen kann. Eine dieser „essenziellen Klimavariablen“ ist der Anteil der absorbierten photosynthetisch aktiven Strahlung (FAPAR) die man zur Berechnung der globalen Kohlenstoffbilanz benötigt. FAPAR bezieht die verfĂŒgbare photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung (PAR) im WellenlĂ€ngenbereich zwischen 400 und 700 nm auf die Absorption von Pflanzen und quantifiziert somit Status und die zeitliche Entwicklung von Vegetation. Um möglichst prĂ€zise Informationen aus dem globalen FAPAR zu gewĂ€hrleisten, erklĂ€rte die UN/WMO-Institution zur globalen Klimabeobachtung, das “Global Climate Observing System“ (GCOS), ein Genauigkeitsziel von 10% (bzw. 0.05) FAPAR-Produkte als akzeptabel. Da aktuell satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Produkte dieses Genauigkeitsziel besonders in Waldökosystemen immer noch verfehlen, werden dringen in situ FAPAR-Messungen benötigt, um die FAPAR-Produkte validieren und in Zukunft verbessern zu können. Man weiß jedoch, dass je nach Auswahl des Messsystems und vorherrschenden Umweltbedingungen in situ FAPAR-Messungen mit erheblichen sowohl systematischen als auch statistischen Fehlern beeinflusst sein können. Bisher wurden diese Fehler in Simulationen mit Strahlungstransfermodellen zwar theoretisch nachvollzogen, aber die dadurch abgeleiteten Befunde sind bisher weder in Feldversuchen noch in unterschiedlichen Waldökosystemen validiert worden. Eine UnsicherheitsabschĂ€tzung von FAPAR im Feldversuch ist allerdings essenziell, um praxistaugliche Messprotokolle entwickeln zu können. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Genauigkeit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen und Ursachen von Unsicherheit basierend auf mehrjĂ€hrigen, 10-minĂŒtigen PAR-Messungen mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken (WSNs) an drei verschiedenen Waldstandorten auf drei Kontinenten: der Standort „Graswang“ in SĂŒddeutschland mit einem Fichten-Mischwald, der Standort „Peace River“ in Nord-Alberta, Kanada mit einem borealen Laubwald und der Standort „Santa Rosa“, Costa Rica mit einem tropischen Trockenwald. Die Hauptaussagen der in dieser Arbeit erzielten Forschungsergebnisse werden im Folgenden kurz zusammengefasst: Unsicherheiten von FAPAR in Waldökosystemen können mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken und zusĂ€tzlichen meteorologischen und phĂ€nologischen Beobachtungen quantifiziert werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Methoden fĂŒr die Bewertung von Unsicherheiten entwickelt. Erstens, um den systematischen Fehler der sogenannten „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, kann die Differenz zwischen FAPAR, das unter diffusen LichtverhĂ€ltnissen aufgenommen wurde, und FAPAR, das unter klaren Himmelsbedingungen aufgenommen wurde, untersucht werden. FĂŒr diese Methode sind Messungen des einfallenden und transmittierten PAR sowie Beobachtungen des VerhĂ€ltnisses von diffuser zur gesamten einfallenden Strahlung erforderlich. Zweitens, um den systematischen Fehler nicht nur der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, sondern auch der „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, mĂŒssen „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen durchgefĂŒhrt werden, d.h. zusĂ€tzlich Messungen der PAR Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs sowie des Waldbodens. Zur Quantifizierung des Fehlers der „two-flux“ und „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung kann die Differenz zur „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messung herangezogen werden. Die Hauptquellen fĂŒr die Unsicherheit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen sind ein hoher Sonnenzenitwinkel, BlattfĂ€rbung und erhöhte Windgeschwindigkeit. An allen drei Untersuchungsstandorten zeigten die FAPAR-Beobachtungen natĂŒrliche saisonale Schwankungen aufgrund der phĂ€nologischen Entwicklung der WĂ€lder (Graswang: 0,89 bis 0,99 ±0,02; Peace River: 0,55 bis 0,87 ±0,03; Santa Rosa: 0,45 bis 0,97 ±0,06). Unter bestimmten Umweltbedingungen war FAPAR von systematischen Fehlern, d.h. Verzerrungen betroffen, die ĂŒber phĂ€nologisch erklĂ€rbare Schwankungen hinausgehen. So bestĂ€tigten die in situ Beobachtungen eine signifikante ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR um bis zu 0,06 bei Sonnenzenitwinkeln von ĂŒber 60° und um bis zu 0,05 bei Vorkommen gefĂ€rbter BlĂ€tter der LaubbĂ€ume. Die Ergebnisse bestĂ€tigen theoretische Erkenntnisse aus Strahlungstransfersimulationen, die nun erstmalig unter Feldbedingungen quantifiziert werden konnten. Als eine neue Erkenntnis konnte der Einfluss der Windgeschwindigkeit gezeigt werden, der sich besonders am borealen Standort mit einer signifikanten Verzerrung der FAPAR-Werte bei Windgeschwindigkeiten ĂŒber 5 ms-1 Ă€ußerte. Die Unsicherheiten der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung sind unter typischen Sommerbedingungen akzeptabel. „Three-flux“ oder „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen erhöhen nicht unbedingt die Genauigkeit der AbschĂ€tzung. Die höchsten durchschnittlichen relativen systematischen Fehler verschiedener Methoden zur FAPAR-Messung betrugen 2,1% in Graswang, 8,4% in Peace River und -4,5% in Santa Rosa. Damit wurde der durch GCOS festgelegte Genauigkeitsschwellenwert von 10% im Allgemeinen nicht ĂŒberschritten. Die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung wurde nur als fehleranfĂ€llig bei hohe Windgeschwindigkeiten befunden, da Änderungen der PAR-Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs bei der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung nicht berĂŒcksichtigt werden. Unter typischen Sommerbedingungen, also geringe Windgeschwindigkeit, kleiner Sonnenzenitwinkel und grĂŒne BlĂ€tter, kann die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung fĂŒr die Validierung von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten empfohlen werden. Auf Basis der gewonnenen Ergebnisse muss betont werden, dass die „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, die in bisherigen Studien hĂ€ufig bevorzugt wurde, nicht unbedingt weniger fehlerbehaftet sind, was sich insbesondere am tropischen Standort zeigte. Die Abweichungen zwischen Bodenmessungen und dem aktuellen Sentinel-2 FAPAR-Produkt ĂŒberschreiten auch unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in der Messmethodik immer noch weitgehend die GCOS-Zielgenauigkeit an den jeweiligen Untersuchungsstandorten. So zeigte sich, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt die Bodenbeobachtungen an allen drei Studienstandorten systematisch unterschĂ€tzte (d.h. negative Werte fĂŒr die mittlere relative Abweichung in Prozent). Die höchste Übereinstimmung wurde am borealen Standort Peace River mit einer mittleren relativen Abweichung von -13% (RÂČ=0,67) beobachtet. An den Standorten Graswang und Santa Rosa betrugen die mittleren relativen Abweichungen jeweils -20% (RÂČ=0,68) bzw. -25% (RÂČ=0,26). Es wurde argumentiert, dass diese hohen Abweichungen auf eine Kombination sowohl des generisch ausgerichteten Algorithmus als auch der höheren KomplexitĂ€t beider Ökosysteme zurĂŒckgefĂŒhrt werden können. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die zeitlichen Aggregierung der FAPAR-Bodendaten zum Vergleich mit S2 FAPAR-Produkt, das sich auf Tagesmittelwerte bezieht, gut ĂŒberlegt sein sollte, da die ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR wĂ€hrend eines hohen Sonnenzenitwinkels in den Bodendaten die Validierungsergebnisse verzerren kann. Unter BerĂŒcksichtigung der Unsicherheiten der Bodendaten erfĂŒllte das S2 FAPAR Produkt jedoch nur am boreale Untersuchungsstandort die Genauigkeitsanforderungen des GCOS. Insgesamt hat sich gezeigt, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt bereits gut zur Beurteilung der zeitlichen VariabilitĂ€t von FAPAR geeignet ist, aber aufgrund der geringen Genauigkeit der absoluten Werte sind die Möglichkeiten, globale Produktionseffizienzmodelle zu speisen und globale Kohlenstoffbilanzen zu bewerten, derzeit begrenzt. Die Genauigkeit von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten ist abhĂ€ngig von der KomplexitĂ€t des beobachteten Waldökosystems. Die höchste Übereinstimmung zwischen satellitengestĂŒtztem FAPAR und Bodenmessungen, sowohl hinsichtlich der Darstellung von absolutem Werten als auch der rĂ€umlichen VariabilitĂ€t, wurde am borealen Standort erzielt, fĂŒr den die KomplexitĂ€t des Ökosystems unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Waldstrukturvariablen und Artenreichtum am geringsten ausfĂ€llt. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse wurden in drei Publikationen dieser kumulativen Arbeit erarbeitet. Insgesamt schließt diese Arbeit eine WissenslĂŒcke in der Darstellung des Zusammenspiels verschiedener Umgebungsbedingungen auf die Genauigkeit von situ FAPAR-Messungen. Da die Unsicherheiten von FAPAR nun unter Feldbedingungen quantifizierbar sind, sollten sie in zukĂŒnftigen Validierungsstudien auch berĂŒcksichtigt werden. In diesem Zusammenhang können die in dieser Arbeit genannten praktische Empfehlungen fĂŒr die DurchfĂŒhrung von Bodenbeobachtungen zur Erstellung von Messprotokollen herangezogen werden, die dringend erforderlich sind, um globale satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Beobachten validieren und zukĂŒnftig verbessern zu können

    Assessing uncertainties of in situ FAPAR measurements across different forest ecosystems

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    Carbon balances are important for understanding global climate change. Assessing such balances on a local scale depends on accurate measurements of material flows to calculate the productivity of the ecosystem. The productivity of the Earth's biosphere, in turn, depends on the ability of plants to absorb sunlight and assimilate biomass. Over the past decades, numerous Earth observation missions from satellites have created new opportunities to derive so-called “essential climate variables” (ECVs), including important variables of the terrestrial biosphere, that can be used to assess the productivity of our Earth's system. One of these ECVs is the “fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation” (FAPAR) which is needed to calculate the global carbon balance. FAPAR relates the available photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the wavelength range between 400 and 700 nm to the absorption of plants and thus quantifies the status and temporal development of vegetation. In order to ensure accurate datasets of global FAPAR, the UN/WMO institution “Global Climate Observing System” (GCOS) declared an accuracy target of 10% (or 0.05) as acceptable for FAPAR products. Since current satellite derived FAPAR products still fail to meet this accuracy target, especially in forest ecosystems, in situ FAPAR measurements are needed to validate FAPAR products and improve them in the future. However, it is known that in situ FAPAR measurements can be affected by significant systematic as well as statistical errors (i.e., “bias”) depending on the choice of measurement method and prevailing environmental conditions. So far, uncertainties of in situ FAPAR have been reproduced theoretically in simulations with radiation transfer models (RTMs), but the findings have been validated neither in field experiments nor in different forest ecosystems. However, an uncertainty assessment of FAPAR in field experiments is essential to develop practicable measurement protocols. This work investigates the accuracy of in situ FAPAR measurements and sources of uncertainties based on multi-year, 10-minute PAR measurements with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) at three sites on three continents to represent different forest ecosystems: a mixed spruce forest at the site “Graswang” in Southern Germany, a boreal deciduous forest at the site “Peace River” in Northern Alberta, Canada and a tropical dry forest (TDF) at the site “Santa Rosa”, Costa Rica. The main statements of the research results achieved in this thesis are briefly summarized below: Uncertainties of instantaneous FAPAR in forest ecosystems can be assessed with Wireless Sensor Networks and additional meteorological and phenological observations. In this thesis, two methods for a FAPAR bias assessment have been developed. First, for assessing the bias of the so-called two-flux FAPAR estimate, the difference between FAPAR acquired under diffuse light conditions and two-flux FAPAR acquired during clear-sky conditions can be investigated. Therefore, measurements of incoming and transmitted PAR are required to calculate the two-flux FAPAR estimate as well as observations of the ratio of diffuse-to-total incident radiation. Second, to assess the bias of not only the two- but also the three-flux FAPAR estimate, four-flux FAPAR observations must be carried out, i.e. measurements of top-of-canopy (TOC) PAR albedo and PAR albedo of the forest background. Then, to quantify the bias of the two and three-flux estimate, the difference with the four-flux estimate can be calculated. Main sources of uncertainty of in situ FAPAR measurements are high solar zenith angle, occurrence of colored leaves and increased wind speed. At all sites, FAPAR observations exhibited considerable seasonal variability due to the phenological development of the forests (Graswang: 0.89 to 0.99 ±0.02; Peace River: 0.55 to 0.87 ±0.03; Santa Rosa: 0.45 to 0.97 ±0.06). Under certain environmental conditions, FAPAR was affected by systemic errors, i.e. bias that go beyond phenologically explainable fluctuations. The in situ observations confirmed a significant overestimation of FAPAR by up to 0.06 at solar zenith angles above 60° and by up to 0.05 under the occurrence of colored leaves of deciduous trees. The results confirm theoretical findings from radiation transfer simulations, which could now for the first time be quantified under field conditions. As a new finding, the influence of wind speed could be shown, which was particularly evident at the boreal location with a significant bias of FAPAR values at wind speeds above 5 ms-1. The uncertainties of the two-flux FAPAR estimate are acceptable under typical summer conditions. Three-flux or four-flux FAPAR measurements do not necessarily increase the accuracy of the estimate. The highest average relative bias of different FAPAR estimates were 2.1% in Graswang, 8.4% in Peace River and -4.5% in Santa Rosa. Thus, the GCOS accuracy threshold of 10% set by the GCOS was generally not exceeded. The two-flux FAPAR estimate was only found to be biased during high wind speeds, as changes in the TOC PAR albedo are not considered in two-flux FAPAR measurements. Under typical summer conditions, i.e. low wind speed, small solar zenith angle and green leaves, two-flux FAPAR measurements can be recommended for the validation of satellite-based FAPAR products. Based on the results obtained, it must be emphasized that the three-flux FAPAR estimate, which has often been preferred in previous studies, is not necessarily more accurate, which was particularly evident in the tropical location. The discrepancies between ground measurements and the current Sentinel-2 FAPAR product still largely exceed the GCOS target accuracy at the respective study sites, even when considering uncertainties of FAPAR ground measurements. It was found that the Sentinel-2 (S2) FAPAR product systematically underestimated the ground observations at all three study sites (i.e. negative values for the mean relative bias in percent). The highest agreement was observed at the boreal site Peace River with a mean relative deviation of -13% (RÂČ=0.67). At Graswang and Santa Rosa, the mean relative deviations were -20% (RÂČ=0.68) and -25% (RÂČ=0.26), respectively. It was argued that these high discrepancies resulted from both the generic nature of the algorithm and the higher ecosystem complexity of the sites Graswang and Santa Rosa. It was also found that the temporal aggregation method of FAPAR ground data should be well considered for comparison with the S2 FAPAR product, which refers to daily averages, as overestimation of FAPAR during high solar zenith angles could distort validation results. However, considering uncertainties of ground measurements, the S2 FAPAR product met the GCOS accuracy requirements only at the boreal study site. Overall, it has been shown that the S2 FAPAR product is already well suited to assess the temporal variability of FAPAR, but due to the low accuracy of the absolute values, the possibilities to feed global production efficiency models and evaluate global carbon balances are currently limited. The accuracy of satellite derived FAPAR depends on the complexity of the observed forest ecosystem. The highest agreement between satellite derived FAPAR product and ground measurements, both in terms of absolute values and spatial variability, was achieved at the boreal site, where the complexity of the ecosystem is lowest considering forest structure variables and species richness. These results have been elaborated and presented in three publications that are at the center of this cumulative thesis. In sum, this work closes a knowledge gap by displaying the interplay of different environmental conditions on the accuracy of situ FAPAR measurements. Since the uncertainties of FAPAR are now quantifiable under field conditions, they should also be considered in future validation studies. In this context, the practical recommendations for the implementation of ground observations given in this thesis can be used to prepare sampling protocols, which are urgently needed to validate and improve global satellite derived FAPAR observations in the future.Projektionen zukĂŒnftiger Kohlenstoffbilanzen sind wichtig fĂŒr das VerstĂ€ndnis des globalen Klimawandels und sind auf genaue Messungen von StoffflĂŒssen zur Berechnung der ProduktivitĂ€t des Erdökosystems angewiesen. Die ProduktivitĂ€t der BiosphĂ€re unserer Erde wiederum ist abhĂ€ngig von der Eigenschaft von Pflanzen, Sonnenlicht zu absorbieren und Biomasse zu assimilieren. Über die letzten Jahrzehnte haben zahlreiche Erdbeobachtungsmissionen von Satelliten neue Möglichkeiten geschaffen, sogenannte „essentielle Klimavariablen“ (ECVs), darunter auch wichtige Variablen der terrestrischen BiosphĂ€re, aus Satellitendaten abzuleiten, mit deren Hilfe man die ProduktivitĂ€t unseres Erdsystems computergestĂŒtzt berechnen kann. Eine dieser „essenziellen Klimavariablen“ ist der Anteil der absorbierten photosynthetisch aktiven Strahlung (FAPAR) die man zur Berechnung der globalen Kohlenstoffbilanz benötigt. FAPAR bezieht die verfĂŒgbare photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung (PAR) im WellenlĂ€ngenbereich zwischen 400 und 700 nm auf die Absorption von Pflanzen und quantifiziert somit Status und die zeitliche Entwicklung von Vegetation. Um möglichst prĂ€zise Informationen aus dem globalen FAPAR zu gewĂ€hrleisten, erklĂ€rte die UN/WMO-Institution zur globalen Klimabeobachtung, das “Global Climate Observing System“ (GCOS), ein Genauigkeitsziel von 10% (bzw. 0.05) FAPAR-Produkte als akzeptabel. Da aktuell satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Produkte dieses Genauigkeitsziel besonders in Waldökosystemen immer noch verfehlen, werden dringen in situ FAPAR-Messungen benötigt, um die FAPAR-Produkte validieren und in Zukunft verbessern zu können. Man weiß jedoch, dass je nach Auswahl des Messsystems und vorherrschenden Umweltbedingungen in situ FAPAR-Messungen mit erheblichen sowohl systematischen als auch statistischen Fehlern beeinflusst sein können. Bisher wurden diese Fehler in Simulationen mit Strahlungstransfermodellen zwar theoretisch nachvollzogen, aber die dadurch abgeleiteten Befunde sind bisher weder in Feldversuchen noch in unterschiedlichen Waldökosystemen validiert worden. Eine UnsicherheitsabschĂ€tzung von FAPAR im Feldversuch ist allerdings essenziell, um praxistaugliche Messprotokolle entwickeln zu können. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Genauigkeit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen und Ursachen von Unsicherheit basierend auf mehrjĂ€hrigen, 10-minĂŒtigen PAR-Messungen mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken (WSNs) an drei verschiedenen Waldstandorten auf drei Kontinenten: der Standort „Graswang“ in SĂŒddeutschland mit einem Fichten-Mischwald, der Standort „Peace River“ in Nord-Alberta, Kanada mit einem borealen Laubwald und der Standort „Santa Rosa“, Costa Rica mit einem tropischen Trockenwald. Die Hauptaussagen der in dieser Arbeit erzielten Forschungsergebnisse werden im Folgenden kurz zusammengefasst: Unsicherheiten von FAPAR in Waldökosystemen können mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken und zusĂ€tzlichen meteorologischen und phĂ€nologischen Beobachtungen quantifiziert werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Methoden fĂŒr die Bewertung von Unsicherheiten entwickelt. Erstens, um den systematischen Fehler der sogenannten „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, kann die Differenz zwischen FAPAR, das unter diffusen LichtverhĂ€ltnissen aufgenommen wurde, und FAPAR, das unter klaren Himmelsbedingungen aufgenommen wurde, untersucht werden. FĂŒr diese Methode sind Messungen des einfallenden und transmittierten PAR sowie Beobachtungen des VerhĂ€ltnisses von diffuser zur gesamten einfallenden Strahlung erforderlich. Zweitens, um den systematischen Fehler nicht nur der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, sondern auch der „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, mĂŒssen „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen durchgefĂŒhrt werden, d.h. zusĂ€tzlich Messungen der PAR Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs sowie des Waldbodens. Zur Quantifizierung des Fehlers der „two-flux“ und „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung kann die Differenz zur „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messung herangezogen werden. Die Hauptquellen fĂŒr die Unsicherheit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen sind ein hoher Sonnenzenitwinkel, BlattfĂ€rbung und erhöhte Windgeschwindigkeit. An allen drei Untersuchungsstandorten zeigten die FAPAR-Beobachtungen natĂŒrliche saisonale Schwankungen aufgrund der phĂ€nologischen Entwicklung der WĂ€lder (Graswang: 0,89 bis 0,99 ±0,02; Peace River: 0,55 bis 0,87 ±0,03; Santa Rosa: 0,45 bis 0,97 ±0,06). Unter bestimmten Umweltbedingungen war FAPAR von systematischen Fehlern, d.h. Verzerrungen betroffen, die ĂŒber phĂ€nologisch erklĂ€rbare Schwankungen hinausgehen. So bestĂ€tigten die in situ Beobachtungen eine signifikante ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR um bis zu 0,06 bei Sonnenzenitwinkeln von ĂŒber 60° und um bis zu 0,05 bei Vorkommen gefĂ€rbter BlĂ€tter der LaubbĂ€ume. Die Ergebnisse bestĂ€tigen theoretische Erkenntnisse aus Strahlungstransfersimulationen, die nun erstmalig unter Feldbedingungen quantifiziert werden konnten. Als eine neue Erkenntnis konnte der Einfluss der Windgeschwindigkeit gezeigt werden, der sich besonders am borealen Standort mit einer signifikanten Verzerrung der FAPAR-Werte bei Windgeschwindigkeiten ĂŒber 5 ms-1 Ă€ußerte. Die Unsicherheiten der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung sind unter typischen Sommerbedingungen akzeptabel. „Three-flux“ oder „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen erhöhen nicht unbedingt die Genauigkeit der AbschĂ€tzung. Die höchsten durchschnittlichen relativen systematischen Fehler verschiedener Methoden zur FAPAR-Messung betrugen 2,1% in Graswang, 8,4% in Peace River und -4,5% in Santa Rosa. Damit wurde der durch GCOS festgelegte Genauigkeitsschwellenwert von 10% im Allgemeinen nicht ĂŒberschritten. Die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung wurde nur als fehleranfĂ€llig bei hohe Windgeschwindigkeiten befunden, da Änderungen der PAR-Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs bei der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung nicht berĂŒcksichtigt werden. Unter typischen Sommerbedingungen, also geringe Windgeschwindigkeit, kleiner Sonnenzenitwinkel und grĂŒne BlĂ€tter, kann die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung fĂŒr die Validierung von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten empfohlen werden. Auf Basis der gewonnenen Ergebnisse muss betont werden, dass die „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, die in bisherigen Studien hĂ€ufig bevorzugt wurde, nicht unbedingt weniger fehlerbehaftet sind, was sich insbesondere am tropischen Standort zeigte. Die Abweichungen zwischen Bodenmessungen und dem aktuellen Sentinel-2 FAPAR-Produkt ĂŒberschreiten auch unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in der Messmethodik immer noch weitgehend die GCOS-Zielgenauigkeit an den jeweiligen Untersuchungsstandorten. So zeigte sich, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt die Bodenbeobachtungen an allen drei Studienstandorten systematisch unterschĂ€tzte (d.h. negative Werte fĂŒr die mittlere relative Abweichung in Prozent). Die höchste Übereinstimmung wurde am borealen Standort Peace River mit einer mittleren relativen Abweichung von -13% (RÂČ=0,67) beobachtet. An den Standorten Graswang und Santa Rosa betrugen die mittleren relativen Abweichungen jeweils -20% (RÂČ=0,68) bzw. -25% (RÂČ=0,26). Es wurde argumentiert, dass diese hohen Abweichungen auf eine Kombination sowohl des generisch ausgerichteten Algorithmus als auch der höheren KomplexitĂ€t beider Ökosysteme zurĂŒckgefĂŒhrt werden können. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die zeitlichen Aggregierung der FAPAR-Bodendaten zum Vergleich mit S2 FAPAR-Produkt, das sich auf Tagesmittelwerte bezieht, gut ĂŒberlegt sein sollte, da die ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR wĂ€hrend eines hohen Sonnenzenitwinkels in den Bodendaten die Validierungsergebnisse verzerren kann. Unter BerĂŒcksichtigung der Unsicherheiten der Bodendaten erfĂŒllte das S2 FAPAR Produkt jedoch nur am boreale Untersuchungsstandort die Genauigkeitsanforderungen des GCOS. Insgesamt hat sich gezeigt, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt bereits gut zur Beurteilung der zeitlichen VariabilitĂ€t von FAPAR geeignet ist, aber aufgrund der geringen Genauigkeit der absoluten Werte sind die Möglichkeiten, globale Produktionseffizienzmodelle zu speisen und globale Kohlenstoffbilanzen zu bewerten, derzeit begrenzt. Die Genauigkeit von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten ist abhĂ€ngig von der KomplexitĂ€t des beobachteten Waldökosystems. Die höchste Übereinstimmung zwischen satellitengestĂŒtztem FAPAR und Bodenmessungen, sowohl hinsichtlich der Darstellung von absolutem Werten als auch der rĂ€umlichen VariabilitĂ€t, wurde am borealen Standort erzielt, fĂŒr den die KomplexitĂ€t des Ökosystems unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Waldstrukturvariablen und Artenreichtum am geringsten ausfĂ€llt. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse wurden in drei Publikationen dieser kumulativen Arbeit erarbeitet. Insgesamt schließt diese Arbeit eine WissenslĂŒcke in der Darstellung des Zusammenspiels verschiedener Umgebungsbedingungen auf die Genauigkeit von situ FAPAR-Messungen. Da die Unsicherheiten von FAPAR nun unter Feldbedingungen quantifizierbar sind, sollten sie in zukĂŒnftigen Validierungsstudien auch berĂŒcksichtigt werden. In diesem Zusammenhang können die in dieser Arbeit genannten praktische Empfehlungen fĂŒr die DurchfĂŒhrung von Bodenbeobachtungen zur Erstellung von Messprotokollen herangezogen werden, die dringend erforderlich sind, um globale satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Beobachten validieren und zukĂŒnftig verbessern zu können

    Remote sensing phenology at European northern latitudes - From ground spectral towers to satellites

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    Plant phenology exerts major influences on carbon, water, and energy exchanges between atmosphere and ecosystems, provides feedbacks to climate, and affects ecosystem functioning and services. Great efforts have been spent in studying plant phenology over the past decades, but there are still large uncertainties and disputations in phenology estimation, trends, and its climate sensitivities. This thesis aims to reduce these uncertainties through analyzing ground spectral sampling, developing methods for in situ light sensor calibration, and exploring a new spectral index for reliable retrieval of remote sensing phenology and climate sensitivity estimation at European northern latitudes. The ground spectral towers use light sensors of either nadir or off-nadir viewing to measure reflected radiation, yet how plants in the sensor view contribute differently to the measured signals, and necessary in situ calibrations are often overlooked, leading to great uncertainties in ground spectral sampling of vegetation. It was found that the ground sampling points in the sensor view follow a Cauchy distribution, which is further modulated by the sensor directional response function. We proposed in situ light sensor calibration methods and showed that the user in situ calibration is more reliable than manufacturer’s lab calibration when our proposed calibration procedures are followed. By taking the full advantages of more reliable and standardized reflectance, we proposed a plant phenology vegetation index (PPI), which is derived from a radiative transfer equation and uses red and near infrared reflectance. PPI shows good linearity with canopy green leaf area index, and is correlated with gross primary productivity, better than other vegetation indices in our test. With suppressed snow influences, PPI shows great potentials for retrieving phenology over coniferous-dominated boreal forests. PPI was used to retrieve plant phenology from MODIS nadir BRDF-adjusted reflectance at European northern latitudes for the period 2000-2014. We estimated the trend of start of growing season (SOS), end of growing season (EOS), length of growing season (LOS), and the PPI integral for the time span, and found significant changes in most part of the region, with an average rate of -0.39 days·year-1 in SOS, 0.48 days·year-1 in EOS, 0.87 days·year-1 in LOS, and 0.79%·year-1 in the PPI integral over the past 15 years. We found that the plant phenology was significantly affected by climate in most part of the region, with an average sensitivity to temperature: SOS at -3.43 days·°C-1, EOS at 1.27 days·°C-1, LOS at 3.16 days·°C-1, and PPI integral at 2.29 %·°C-1, and to precipitation: SOS at 0.28 days∙cm-1, EOS at 0.05 days∙cm-1, LOS at 0.04 days∙cm-1, and PPI integral at -0.07%∙cm-1. These phenology variations were significantly related to decadal variations of atmospheric circulations, including the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Arctic Oscillation. The methods developed in this thesis can help to improve the reliability of long-term field spectral measurements and to reduce uncertainties in remote sensing phenology retrieval and climate sensitivity estimation

    Accuracy assessment on the number of flux terms needed to estimate in situ fAPAR

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    The fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (fAPAR) is a crucial variable for assessing global carbon balances and currently, there is an urgent need for reference data to validate satellite-derived fAPAR products. However, it is well-known that fAPAR ground measurements are associated with considerable uncertainties. Generally, fAPAR measurements can be carried out with two-, three- and four-flux approaches, depending on the number of flux terms measured. Currently, not much is known about the number of flux terms needed to satisfactorily reduce systematic errors. This study investigates the accuracy of different fAPAR estimates based on permanent, 10-min PAR measurements using Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) at three forest sites, located in Central Europe (mixed-coniferous forest), North America (boreal-deciduous forest) and Central America (tropical dry forest). All fAPAR estimates reflect the seasonal course of fAPAR. The highest average biases of different fAPAR estimates account to 0.02 at the temperate, 0.08 at the boreal and -0.05 at the tropical site, respectively, thereby generally fulfilling the uncertainty threshold of a maximum of 10 % or 0.05 fAPAR units set by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS, 2016). During high wind speed conditions at the boreal site, the bias of the two-flux fAPAR estimate exceeded the 0.05-uncertainty threshold. Three-flux fAPAR estimates were not found to be advantageous, especially at the tropical site. Our findings are beneficial for the development of sampling protocols that are needed to validate global satellite-derived fAPAR products
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