ENERGY JUSTICE AND U.S. ENERGY POLICY: CASE STUDY APPLICATIONS EXPLORING U.S. ENERGY POLICY THROUGH AN ENERGY JUSTICE FRAMEWORK

This thesis presents three examples of U.S. energy policy and demonstrates how these policies violate the principles of energy justice. First, requiring only Federal agencies to obtain a percentage of energy production from renewables violates the distributive energy justice principle through a lack of a federal renewable energy policy which distributes the potential for unequal electrical grid failure to populations. Second, U.S. energy policy violates the procedural energy justice principle through inequitable participation and poor knowledge dissemination that, in some cases, contributes to stagnant renewable targets during the decision-making process and inequitable distribution of the benefits associated with renewable energy arguably resulting from differential representation of economic groups in policy decision making. Third, the United States’ continued reliance on and subsidization of fossil fuel extraction and use, violates the prohibitive energy justice principle by causing physical harm to humans and the environment. Finally, a lack of federal renewable energy policy hinders comprehensive energy policy including diversifying the U.S. renewable energy portfolios. Considering energy policy through the framework of energy justice offers a means of evaluating existing policy and can improve future energy policy decision-making. Demanding energy justice ensures that all populations have equitable distribution, participation, and access to affordable, efficient, and clean energy technologies that contribute to obtaining basic needs

An Analysis of Ohio\u27s Alternative Energy Portfolio Standard

I performed quantitative analyses and qualitative interpretation of energy policy data, energy production and consumption data, and political data. I collected data on state Renewable Portfolio Standards from the Database for State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE), energy production and consumption data for the 50 states and Washington D.C. from the Energy Information Agency (EIA), and 1992 presidential election data from the internet. I identify relationships that exist between these different types of variables, and where Ohio fits in the national context of existing energy patterns and policies. There are several conclusions found in the literature that are independently tested with the data I have collected. I hypothesize that enactment of Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) policies and geographic location in the United States are not robust indicators of the proportion of energy generation in states that comes from renewable sources, and that the strength of RPS policies is not based upon location (Carley 2009). Furthermore, I predict that states that are politically left leaning have larger proportions of their energy generation coming from renewable sources and have stronger RPS policies (Carley 2009). Finally, I postulate that Ohio\u27s energy policy will be weaker relative to some policies based upon descriptive statistics of the RPS policies. Tests utilized include correlations, T-tests, and multiple linear regressions for geographic variables. I also performed a spatial analysis of renewable energy potential and unemployment rates in the state of Ohio. I found National Renewable Energy Laboratory maps of average wind speed, solar radiation, biomass yield, and a Bureau of Labor Statistics map of unemployment rates at the county level. I calculated correlation coefficients between unemployment rate and renewable resource abundance according to a 24-section grid I overlaid on the state. No positive statistically significant results occurred, with the highest unemployment in the Southeast and greatest wind potential in the Northwest. There was insufficient variation of solar radiation across the state to perform a meaningful correlation

The Spatial Economics of Clean Energy in New Jersey

Clean energy policy is critically important in driving reductions of greenhouse gases and mitigating climate change. As clean energy technologies improve over time and interact with social systems and broader energy markets, there is a need for innovative environmental management that supports development of new clean energy policy. Understanding where these technologies may be deployed, quantifying the anticipated benefits, and mitigating risks are required for successful policy optimization. With these considerations in mind, this dissertation explores geothermal heat pumps (GHP), solar photovoltaics, and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). We call upon spatial economics to investigate these topics by incorporating the biophysical environment, socioeconomic factors, and economic considerations in our methodology to approach this problem from a holistic environmental management perspective. Reducing energy end use is a climate mitigation strategy that can be applied across the building, industry, and transportation sectors. Increasing energy efficiency, particularly in the building sector, is a promising means to reduce energy end use. In the second chapter of this dissertation, we perform a place-based investigation of GHP systems in New Jersey. In doing so we provide new baseline information on which building sectors this technology is most used and identify areas of significant clustering. Both of which provide insights for new energy efficiency policy within the study area. In the third chapter, we conduct a life cycle assessment of geothermal heat pumps to assess the cradle-to-grave environmental and human health impacts throughout the lifetime of a system operating in New Jersey. The results of this section highlight lower environmental and human impacts associated with GHP systems operating within New Jersey compared to the rest of the United States. We also conclude that GHP systems are significantly less impactful throughout their lifetime and operation as compared to other heating and cooling configurations that are common in the state. A combination of renewable energy technologies such as wind and solar photovoltaics will be an integral part of the clean energy electric generation portfolio of the future. Understanding where these systems are best located and how the public values their benefits can support smart policy decisions. In the fourth chapter, we evaluate solar photovoltaic potential using hosting capacity interpolation, multi-market suitability models, and remote sensing. The findings show hosting capacity of potential solar siting locations varies within each electric distribution company (EDC) territory. The results of the suitability models highlight areas for targeted local investigations of project suitability and community solar off-taker potential. Our municipal remote sensing analysis yield valuable local scale information of roof geometry, flood hazards, and solar radiation potential which can be used to streamline system siting and design. In the fifth chapter, we conduct a consumer willingness to pay survey for potential community solar customers in New Jersey. Evaluating the responses of over six-hundred residents underscores the common barriers to traditional residential net metering, such as home ownership and financial requirement. It also illuminates consumers’ willingness to participate in community solar projects that improve environmental quality and are sited in commercial settings and landfills. Reducing the carbon dioxide emissions associated with the electric generation sector will be crucial in mitigating future climate change. Emission trading schemes (ETS) are a regulatory approach that forces emitters to internalize the negative externalities of carbon dioxide with the goal of driving emission efficiency improvements and creating funding mechanisms to support other climate mitigation and adaptation efforts. In the sixth chapter, we perform a qualitative policy analysis of the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) ETS in the context of generation shifting mitigation. We identify the best mitigation approaches as the program expands to be a combination of increased monitoring and modeling, promoting load reductions through efficiency, and expanding the RGGI program to states within distribution systems that have partial state participation. In New Jersey, successful climate mitigation and clean energy transitions are a function of policy, available technology, and energy markets. Historically, stringent air quality regulations and inexpensive natural gas have led to efficient fossil generation within the state. Additionally, early progressive solar policies have led to a robust solar industry and resulting overall in-state solar photovoltaic capacity ranking high in the nation. Although low-hanging fruit may be relatively sparse, current political environments in the state have been supportive of improved climate action and sparked increased potential for academic research to make tangible contributions to new clean energy policy. As the state continues to transition towards a clean energy future, government administrations, regulatory agencies, grid operators, research institutions, and stakeholders must work alongside each other to develop new policies that support increased climate mitigation. Currently in New Jersey, the potential of clean energy has not been adequately researched, particularly on local and regional scales. The goal of this research is to address this gap by contributing to the body of knowledge in our applied subject areas. The spatial economic approach can be used effectively in clean energy investigations because energy is inherently influenced by economics and geography. We anticipate the overall findings of this work to be applied within the study area to increase clean energy generation and access, promote the clean energy economy, and conserve valuable landscapes

Bridging the Geospatial Education-Workforce Divide: A Case Study on How Higher Education Can Address the Emerging Geospatial Drivers and Trends of the Intelligent Web Mapping Era

The purpose of this exploratory collective case study is to discover how geospatial education can meet the geospatial workforce needs of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the emerging intelligent web mapping era. Geospatial education uses geographic information systems (GIS) to enable student learning by increasing in-depth spatial analysis and meaning using geotechnology tools (Baker & White, 2003). Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy theory and geography concept of spatial thinking form an integrated theoretical framework of spatial cognition for this study. Data collection included in-depth interviews of twelve geospatial stakeholders, documentation collection, and supporting Q methodology to determine the viewpoints of a total of 41 geospatial stakeholders. Q methodology is a type of data collection that when used as a qualitative method utilizes sorting by the participant to determine their preferences. Data analysis strategies included cross-case synthesis, direct interpretation, generalizations, and a correlation matrix to show similarities in participants\u27 preferences. The results revealed four collaborative perceptions of the stakeholders, forming four themes of social education, technology early adoption, data collaboration, and urban fundamentals. Four strategies were identified for higher education to prepare students for the emerging geospatial workforce trends. These strategies are to teach fundamentals, develop agile faculty and curriculum, use an interdisciplinary approach, and collaborate. These strategies reflect the perceptions of stakeholders in this study on how higher education can meet the emerging drivers and trends of the geospatial workforce

SOLAR GENERATED ELECTRICITY: AN ANALYSIS OF WHAT SECTORS ARE MOST AFFECTED BY RENEWABLE PORTFOLIO STANDARDS AND RELATED POLICIES

The aim of this thesis is to analyze state-specific Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) to understand their design and spillover effect onto non-utility (commercial, residential, industrial) sectors. Past research has overlooked non-utility sectors, often focusing on overall renewable energy growth and electricity generation from a combined end-result perspective. Solar capacity and solar generated electricity data from 5 states are used to establish which non-utility sectors experienced the highest level of solar growth from RPSs and related policies between 2010 and 2019. An explanatory sequential design is utilized, where interrupted time series analyses and exploratory case studies are performed to analyze each policy’s effectiveness at increasing solar growth (measured in capacity or electricity generation). It was concluded that the commercial sector experienced the highest level of solar growth of the sectors analyzed. In addition, policies regarding net metering, aggregate net metering, and Solar Renewable Energy Credits were found to significantly increase solar growth in the commercial sector. The residential sector was found to only exhibit significant solar growth from financial incentives, while the industrial sector displayed no significant solar growth from the RPS policies analyzed. The findings of this research can help influence future renewable energy policy designs and act as a vehicle for research on other renewable energy sources

Evaluating the Spatial Trends and Statistical Determinants of Residential Solar Uptake in Washington State

Washington State’s Clean Energy Transformation Act and other state and federal policies encouraging solar power make Washington a ripe candidate to examine growth, trends, and potential determinants or barriers to residential solar uptake. In this thesis, residential solar is cumulatively and annually mapped by county (2000-2019) and Census tract (2017-2019) across the state to identify trends over time and space. Each variable (income, age, households, race, education, solar insolation, cost of solar per watt) was isolated individually to analyze the relationship (if any) to the dependent variable (i.e., residential solar installations). The covariates are then combined into a multiple regression model to examine their explanatory power. Finally, an annual fixed effect multiple regression model is used to identify policy events or economic conditions not being accounted for in the dataset. Collectively these variables help describe the overall drivers and growth of solar installations (2011-2019). Though more data is necessary to develop a more holistic understanding, it is certain that uptake is drastically impacted when subsidy policies are in limbo. Many consumers are delaying the investment until the policy frameworks are concrete, with legislation existing to support the consumer

Renewable Energy: Problems and Prospects in Coachella Valley, California

The book analyzes the problems and potential of renewable energy development for the Coachella Valley of California and provides a useful case study for renewable energy feasibility assessments for other areas. A conceptual model, Integrated Policy Assessment Theory for Renewable Energy, is given and justified for renewable energy development in the Valley. Further, Central Place Theory, well known in urban geography, is discussed and it is seen to be very relevant to the understanding the Coachella Valley’s city sizes and renewable energy markets, compared to the greater Los Angeles region. The book’s research methods include geospatial mapping and analysis and interviews leaders in small innovative firms, government agencies, and nonprofits. The many findings of the book include evaluation of how the Valley’s socioeconomic and transportation features influence renewable energy development, the scope of markets for solar and wind energy in the Valley, spatial confluences of renewable energy facilities with other features, and the future potential of ground-source heat pumps. Benchmark comparison of the Coachella Valley is done with two leading wind and solar regions elsewhere in the country, to assess the Valley’s evolution and opportunities in renewable energy. The book concludes by evaluating the prospects and problems for the growth of renewable entrepreneurship, manufacturing, assembly, and operations in Coachella Valley. This leads to policy recommendations grounded in the book’s research findings, which are intended for use by governments, businesses, and nonprofits. The hope is that many of the developmental experiences from the Coachella Valley will be helpful not only within the Valley but to other communities nationwide and worldwide.https://inspire.redlands.edu/oh_books/1055/thumbnail.jp

Soft energy paths revisited: Politics and practice in energy technology transitions

This paper argues that current efforts to study and advocate for a change in energy technologies to reduce their climate and other environmental impacts often ignore the political, social, and bodily implications of energy technology choices. Framing renewable energy technologies exclusively in terms of their environmental benefits dismisses important questions about how energy infrastructures can be designed to correspond to democratic forms of socio-politics, forms of social organization that involve independence in terms of meeting energy needs, resilience in terms of adapting to change, participatory decision making and control, equitable distribution of knowledge and efficacy, and just distribution of ownership. Recognizing technological choices as political choices brings explicit attention to the kinds of socio-political restructuring that could be precipitated through a renewable energy technology transition. This paper argues that research on energy transitions should consider the political implications of technological choices, not just the environmental consequences. Further, emerging scholarship on energy practices suggests that social habits of energy usage are themselves political, in that they correspond to and reinforce particular arrangements of power. Acknowledging the embedded politics of technology, as the decades’ old concept of soft path technologies encourages, and integrating insights on the politics of technology with insights on technological practices, can improve future research on energy policy and public perceptions of energy systems. This paper extends insights regarding the socio-political implications of energy paths to consider how understandings of energy technologies as constellations of embedded bodily practices can help further develop our understanding of the consequences of energy technologies, consequences that move beyond environmental implications to the very habits and behaviors of patterned energy usage, which are themselves arguably political. This paper calls for future research that involves explicit examination of the relationship between technologies, socio-political distributions of power and access to energy resources, the social organization of energy practices, and options for energy transitions not just in terms of energy source, but also in terms of scale, design, and modes of ownership and control

Puerto Rico’s Electric Power System: An Analysis of Contemporary Failures and the Opportunity to Rebuild a More Resilient Grid, including the Development of a Utility-Scale Solar Farm on the Island Municipality of Culebra

Puerto Rico’s grid was decimated in 2017 after experiencing back-to-back hurricanes – Maria and Irma. Although the hurricanes caused tremendous damage and hardship to the island, it also created the right circumstances for the local energy landscape to transition toward a more resilient and sustainable model. Through an analysis of recent challenges by the local electric utility PREPA, and subsequent fallout from the hurricanes, we see that they now hold a unique opportunity to redeem themselves by taking advantage of catalyzed resources to rebuild a better system. One region that could greatly benefit from an improved and reimagined grid are the two island municipalities of Culebra and Vieques. After investigating PREPA’s failures over the last 10 years, and responses to them, we breakdown the possibility of building a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra and how it may contribute to the island’s energy independence. Finally, we look at the potential impacts that a project of this magnitude could have on the Caribbean and the way we think about small islands and their power systems