2,610 research outputs found
On the Role of Optimization in Double Descent: A Least Squares Study
Empirically it has been observed that the performance of deep neural networks
steadily improves as we increase model size, contradicting the classical view
on overfitting and generalization. Recently, the double descent phenomena has
been proposed to reconcile this observation with theory, suggesting that the
test error has a second descent when the model becomes sufficiently
overparameterized, as the model size itself acts as an implicit regularizer. In
this paper we add to the growing body of work in this space, providing a
careful study of learning dynamics as a function of model size for the least
squares scenario. We show an excess risk bound for the gradient descent
solution of the least squares objective. The bound depends on the smallest
non-zero eigenvalue of the covariance matrix of the input features, via a
functional form that has the double descent behavior. This gives a new
perspective on the double descent curves reported in the literature. Our
analysis of the excess risk allows to decouple the effect of optimization and
generalization error. In particular, we find that in case of noiseless
regression, double descent is explained solely by optimization-related
quantities, which was missed in studies focusing on the Moore-Penrose
pseudoinverse solution. We believe that our derivation provides an alternative
view compared to existing work, shedding some light on a possible cause of this
phenomena, at least in the considered least squares setting. We empirically
explore if our predictions hold for neural networks, in particular whether the
covariance of intermediary hidden activations has a similar behavior as the one
predicted by our derivations
Hierarchically Clustered Adaptive Quantization CMAC and Its Learning Convergence
No abstract availabl
Superior Information, Income Shocks and the Permanent Income Hypothesis
According to the permanent income hypothesis with quadratic preferences, savings should react only to transitory income shocks, but not to permanent shocks. The problem is that income shock components are not separately observable. I show how the combination of income realizations with subjective expectations can help to identify separately the transitory and the permanent shock to income, thus providing a powerful test of the theory. The empirical analysis is performed on a sample of Italian households drawn from the 1989-1991 Survey of Household Income and Wealth.Subjective expectations, income shocks, permanent income hypothesis
Dynamic Spatial Autoregressive Models with Autoregressive and Heteroskedastic Disturbances
We propose a new class of models specifically tailored for spatio-temporal
data analysis. To this end, we generalize the spatial autoregressive model with
autoregressive and heteroskedastic disturbances, i.e. SARAR(1,1), by exploiting
the recent advancements in Score Driven (SD) models typically used in time
series econometrics. In particular, we allow for time-varying spatial
autoregressive coefficients as well as time-varying regressor coefficients and
cross-sectional standard deviations. We report an extensive Monte Carlo
simulation study in order to investigate the finite sample properties of the
Maximum Likelihood estimator for the new class of models as well as its
flexibility in explaining several dynamic spatial dependence processes. The new
proposed class of models are found to be economically preferred by rational
investors through an application in portfolio optimization.Comment: 33 pages, 5 figure
Currency risk and imperfect knowledge: Cointegrated VAR analyses with survey data
Much progress has been made in understanding excess returns in the foreign exchange market through the use of survey data on traders\u27 exchange rate forecasts. On the whole, this literature, which is reviewed in chapter 1, has found that excess returns derive from both violations of the rational expectations hypothesis (non white-noise forecast errors) as well as a time-varying risk premium. What this literature has not done however is to determine whether any of the existing models of the risk premium can account for the time-varying risk premium found in survey data. The second and third chapters use the Cointegrated VAR model to test the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), the Consumption CAPM, and the Keynes-Imperfect Knowledge Economics (IKE) gap model, which relate the risk premium to the exchange rate\u27s variance, covariance with consumption, and deviation from Purchasing Power Parity respectively. The strongest support is found for the Keynes-IKE gap model. The analysis of this model is then extended in chapter 4 to the I(2) CVAR framework, which is a unique empirical approach designed to account for data which undergoes persistent changes over time without the need for data transformations which cause a loss of information. The I(2) model also allows for more rigorous testing of the theory and a better examination of the dynamics between the exchange rate, expectations, prices, and interest rates. The Keynes-IKE gap model still performs quite well. Further, persistent changes are found for the real exchange rate in several instances, which is problematic for standard REH theory but fully compatible with the IKE theory
Information Theory for Complex Systems Scientists
In the 21st century, many of the crucial scientific and technical issues
facing humanity can be understood as problems associated with understanding,
modelling, and ultimately controlling complex systems: systems comprised of a
large number of non-trivially interacting components whose collective behaviour
can be difficult to predict. Information theory, a branch of mathematics
historically associated with questions about encoding and decoding messages,
has emerged as something of a lingua franca for those studying complex systems,
far exceeding its original narrow domain of communication systems engineering.
In the context of complexity science, information theory provides a set of
tools which allow researchers to uncover the statistical and effective
dependencies between interacting components; relationships between systems and
their environment; mereological whole-part relationships; and is sensitive to
non-linearities missed by commonly parametric statistical models.
In this review, we aim to provide an accessible introduction to the core of
modern information theory, aimed specifically at aspiring (and established)
complex systems scientists. This includes standard measures, such as Shannon
entropy, relative entropy, and mutual information, before building to more
advanced topics, including: information dynamics, measures of statistical
complexity, information decomposition, and effective network inference. In
addition to detailing the formal definitions, in this review we make an effort
to discuss how information theory can be interpreted and develop the intuition
behind abstract concepts like "entropy," in the hope that this will enable
interested readers to understand what information is, and how it is used, at a
more fundamental level
Municipal wastewater treatment with pond technology : historical review and future outlook
Facing an unprecedented population growth, it is difficult to overstress the assets for wastewater treatment of waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), i.e. high removal efficiency, simplicity, and low cost, which have been recognized by numerous scientists and operators. However, stricter discharge standards, changes in wastewater compounds, high emissions of greenhouse gases, and elevated land prices have led to their replacements in many places. This review aims at delivering a comprehensive overview of the historical development and current state of WSPs, and providing further insights to deal with their limitations in the future. The 21st century is witnessing changes in the way of approaching conventional problems in pond technology, in which WSPs should no longer be considered as a low treatment technology. Advanced models and technologies have been integrated for better design, control, and management. The roles of algae, which have been crucial as solar-powered aeration, will continue being a key solution. Yet, the separation of suspended algae to avoid deterioration of the effluent remains a major challenge in WSPs while in the case of high algal rate pond, further research is needed to maximize algal growth yield, select proper strains, and optimize harvesting methods to put algal biomass production in practice. Significant gaps need to be filled in understanding mechanisms of greenhouse gas emission, climate change mitigation, pond ecosystem services, and the fate and toxicity of emerging contaminants. From these insights, adaptation strategies are developed to deal with new opportunities and future challenges
Computational mechanisms underpinning greater exploratory behaviour in excess weight relative to healthy weight adolescents
Obesity in adolescence is associated with cognitive changes that lead to difficulties in shifting unhealthy habits in
favour of alternative healthy behaviours, similar to addictive behaviours. An outstanding question is whether this
shift in goal-directed behaviour is driven by over-exploitation or over-exploration of rewarding outcomes. Here,
we addressed this question by comparing explore/exploit behaviour on the Iowa Gambling Task in 43 adolescents
with excess weight against 38 adolescents with healthy weight. We computationally modelled both
exploitation behaviour (e.g., reinforcement sensitivity and inverse decay parameters), and explorative behaviour
(e.g., maximum directed exploration value). We found that overall, adolescents with excess weight displayed
more behavioural exploration than their healthy-weight counterparts – specifically, demonstrating greater
overall switching behaviour. Computational models revealed that this behaviour was driven by a higher
maximum directed exploration value in the excess-weight group (U = 520.00, p = .005, BF10 = 5.11). Importantly,
however, we found substantial evidence that groups did not differ in reinforcement sensitivity (U =
867.00, p = .641, BF10 = 0.30). Overall, our study demonstrates a preference for exploratory behaviour in adolescents
with excess weight, independent of sensitivity to reward. This pattern could potentially underpin an
intrinsic desire to explore energy-dense unhealthy foods – an as-yet untapped mechanism that could be targeted
in future treatments of obesity in adolescents.Junta de AndaluciaNational Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia GNT200946
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